Wolf Movement Research Articles

Directional Connectivity of Wolf (Canis lupus) Populations in Northwest Spain and Anthropogenic Effects on Dispersal Patterns

In view of the extensive information available on wolf ecology and habitat suitability, and on the fragmentation of wolf populations by motorways and similar infrastructures, a key factor in their conservation, the aim of the present study was to model the directional connectivity of wolf populations in the region of Galicia in northwest Spain, and to quantify anthropogenic effects on wolf dispersal patterns. To this end, we map the probability of wolf movement by means of known relationships between wolf movement and anthropogenic, vegetation and topographic factors. The relative importance of each factor was quantified by sensitivity analyses. Three types of cost surface were constructed: (a) isotropic surfaces, (b) anisotropic cost surfaces taking into account terrain slope effects in the movement, and (c) surfaces obtained by combining the isotropic and anisotropic surfaces. The results obtained by approaches (a) and (c) indicate that one of the region’s motorways (the AP-9) probably acts as a significant barrier to wolf movement, possibly isolating two subpopulations, while the remaining motorways probably do not have major effects on dispersal. Estimation of lowest-cost routes for wolf displacement allowed identification of areas critical for connectivity, in which it would be of interest to perform detailed studies with more precise input data on motorway course and the location of drainage channels and underpasses, etc. (these being the factors identified by sensitivity analysis to be those with the most marked effects on the cost surfaces). The visualization of connectivity enabled by this approach will allow wolf management and conservation efforts to be focused on critical areas: such efforts might include measures aimed to encourage wolf dispersal through areas in which conflict with human activity is minimized, thus contributing positively to the management of a socially conflictive species. Finally, evaluation of the different cost surfaces suggests that it would be of interest to introduce two modifications to the anisotropic algorithm, to allow the user to weigh the importance of the different input factors, and to allow the inclusion of more than one anisotropic factor in the model.

Effects of Variable Sampling Frequencies on GPS Transmitter Efficiency and Estimated Wolf Home Range Size and Movement Distance

Global positioning system (GPS) technology has greatly improved the ability to investigate animal ecology at fine spatial and temporal scales but many GPS telemetry-based investigations may be underutilizing the technical capabilities of modern transmitters. We estimated eastern timber wolf (Canis lycaon) movement distance and territory size using variable GPS transmitter sampling frequencies to evaluate the effect of programming details on estimated movement patterns, territory size, and transmitter performance. Estimated movement distance decreased exponentially as sampling frequency was reduced from 1 location every 5 minutes to 1 location every 24 hours, implying that intense sampling frequencies were required for accurate measurement of fine-scale wolf movements. Wolf territory size estimates using 95% minimum convex polygons declined with decreasing sampling frequency, whereas estimates using adaptive kernel methods were comparable across a range of sampling intensities. Estimated transmitter battery longevity increased as the interval between fixes was lengthened but transmitter efficiency, defined as the number of successful fixes obtained during battery lifespan of the transmitter, was highest with fix intervals of intermediate length. Although GPS transmitters are effective for documenting fine-scale movements of animals, we argue their performance is strongly dependent upon transmitter programming and scale of analysis. Effective use of GPS transmitters will require study-specific assessment of the trade-offs between sampling needs versus transmitter efficiency and longevity.

Landscape Use and Movements of Wolves in Relation to Livestock in a Wildland–Agriculture Matrix

Wolves (Canis lupus) have expanded their distribution into areas of the midwest United States that have not had wolves for several decades. With recolonization of wolves into agricultural areas, there is increasing concern of wolf–livestock conflicts. To assess the risk wolves may pose to livestock, we initiated a 3-year study investigating the activity patterns, movements, habitat use, visitation to livestock pastures by wolves, and the occurrence of depredation events in an agricultural–wildland matrix in northwestern Minnesota, USA. From June 1997 to November 1999, we captured 23 wolves, including pups, from 3 packs; we radiocollared 16 of these wolves. We tracked radioed wolves intensively on a 24-hour basis during the spring, summer, and autumn of 1998 and 1999. We found wolves passed directly through a pasture containing cattle on 28% of the nights of tracking; 58% and 95% of the wolf locations were ≤1 km and ≤5 km from a pasture, respectively. Space use of wolves showed that while they visited livestock pastures during the 24-hour tracking sessions, they apparently were passing through these pastures with cattle and not preying on livestock. When compared to random simulations of movements, wolves appeared to encounter livestock pastures randomly. Thirty percent of random movements passed directly through a pasture; 65% and 95% of random movements were within ≤1 km and ≤5 km of a pasture, respectively. Wolves were more active at night than during the day. Wolves avoided pastures during the day and visited pastures at night when depredations were most likely (i.e., human presence was low). Visitation of livestock pastures was not related to any discernible characteristics of the pastures (i.e., pasture size, cattle density, distance to human habitation, percent forest cover, index of deer abundance). However, pastures in which livestock were killed by wolves contained more cattle than pastures without depredations, but in 1998 only. While the risk of wolf predation on livestock was potentially high (wolves were within ≤1 km of a pasture on 58% of nights), few livestock were actually killed. During the 3-year study, only 8 animals (all young or vulnerable livestock) were depredated by wolves. Maintaining healthy wild prey populations, removing offending wolves that kill livestock, and encouraging effective and proper husbandry practices (e.g., disposal of carcasses) among livestock producers, should allow for the persistence of wolves in northwestern Minnesota, USA, while minimizing their impact to farmers in this agriculture–wildland matrix.

Assessment Of Prey Vulnerability Through Analysis Of Wolf Movements And Kill Sites

Within predator-prey systems behavior can heavily influence spatial dynamics, and accordingly, the theoretical study of how spatial dynamics relate to stability within these systems has a rich history. However, our understanding of these behaviors in large mammalian systems is poorly developed. To address the relationship between predator selection patterns, prey density, and prey vulnerability, we quantified selection patterns for two fine-scale behaviors of a recovering wolf (Canis lupus) population in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. Wolf spatial data were collected between November and May from 1998-1999 until 2001-2002. Over four winters, 244 aerial locations, 522 ground-based telemetry locations, 1287 km of movement data from snow tracking, and the locations of 279 wolf kill sites were recorded. There was evidence that elk (Cervus elaphus) and bison (Bison bison) densities had a weak effect on the sites where wolves traveled and made kills. Wolf movements showed a strong selection for geothermal areas, meadows, and areas near various types of habitat edges. Proximity to edge and habitat class also had a strong influence on the locations where elk were most vulnerable to predation. There was little evidence that wolf kill sites differed from the places where wolves traveled, indicating that elk vulnerability influenced where wolves selected to travel. Our results indicate that elk are more vulnerable to wolves under certain conditions and that wolves are capable of selecting for these conditions. As such, vulnerability plays a central role in predator-prey behavioral games and can potentially impact the systems to which they relate.

ELK ALTER HABITAT SELECTION AS AN ANTIPREDATOR RESPONSE TO WOLVES

For elk (Cervus elaphus) in the Gallatin drainage of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, Montana, USA, wolf movements caused local predation risk to vary substan- tially on a time scale of days. Spatially and temporally fine-scaled data from GPS radio collars show that elk moved into the protective cover of wooded areas when wolves were present, reducing their use of preferred grassland foraging habitats that had high predation risk. By constraining habitat selection, wolves may have greater effects on elk dynamics than would be predicted on the basis of direct predation alone. Based on changes in the woody vegetation following the reintroduction of wolves, it has been suggested that an- tipredator responses by elk may be driving a trophic cascade in the Yellowstone ecosystem. However, studies to date have been hampered by a lack of direct data on spatial variation in predation risk, and the ways in which elk respond to variation in risk. Our data support a central portion of the hypothesis that elk antipredator behavior could drive a trophic cascade, but changes in elk numbers are also likely to have affected elk-plant interactions.

SPATIAL RESPONSES OF WOLVES TO ROADS AND TRAILS IN MOUNTAIN VALLEYS

Increasing levels of human activity in mountainous areas have high potential to inhibit animal movement across and among valleys. We examined how wolves respond to roads, trails, and other developments. We recorded the movements of two wolf packs for two winters by following their tracks in the snow and simultaneously recording positions with a hand‐held global positioning system. We then used matched case‐controlled logistic regression to compare habitat covariates of wolf paths (cases) to multiple paired random locations (controls). This analysis emphasized the differences within pairs of cases and controls, rather than differences in their overall distribution, making it useful to assess fine‐scale habitat selection and path data. Both packs selected low elevations, shallow slopes, and southwest aspects. They selected areas within 25 m of roads, trails, and the railway line and more strongly selected low‐use roads and trails compared to high‐use roads and trails. One pack strongly avoided distances between 26 and 200 m of high‐use trails; otherwise, the wolves weakly selected or avoided this distance class. Both packs avoided areas of high road and trail density. We concluded that roads and trails have a cumulative effect on wolf movement and that management of trails, in addition to roads, may be needed to retain high‐quality habitat for wolves, particularly in known movement corridors.

HIERARCHICAL HABITAT SELECTION BY TUNDRA WOLVES

Using resource selection functions, we examined habitat selection patterns of tundra wolves (Canis lupus) in the central Canadian Arctic at the level of the home range and within the home range. Esker habitat was relatively preferred by wolves at the home range level of selection, possibly indicating the importance of denning habitat as a limiting factor for tundra wolves. We failed to conclusively tie vegetation communities to movements of wolves within the home range. Eskers make up only about 1-2% of the landscape; hence, a potential conflict between wolf conservation and industrial development in the region may occur as eskers are targeted as a source of granular material for road construction. Results of this study underline the importance of scale dependence in habitat selection. Failure to view habitat selection as a hierarchical process may result in a narrow and possibly misleading notion of the value of habitats to animals.

Path Tortuosity and the Permeability of Roads and Trails to Wolf Movement

Few studies have examined the effects of human development on fine-scale movement behavior, yet understanding animal movement through increasingly human-dominated landscapes is essential for the persistence of many wild populations, especially wary species. In mountainous areas, roads and trails may be particularly deserving of study because they are concentrated in the valley bottoms where they can impede animal movement both across and between valleys. In this study, we tracked wolf (Canis lupus) movement in the snow for two winters in Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada to examine how wolves navigate through or around human-use features. We quantified the effects of human development and topography on the tortuosity of wolf paths and then tested the permeability of roads, trails, and a railway line to wolf movement by comparing the frequency with which actual wolf paths and a null model of random paths crossed these features. Wolf path tortuosity increased near high-use trails, within areas of high-trail and road density, near predation sites, and in rugged terrain. Wolves crossed all roads, trails, and the railway line 9.7% less often than expected, but avoided crossing high-use roads more than low-use trails. Surprisingly, trails affected movement behavior of wolves equally, if not more, than roads. These results suggest that although roads and trails in this study were not absolute barriers to wolf movement, they altered wolf movements across their territories.

Accuracy of Radiotelemetry to Estimate Wolf Activity and Locations

We analyzed radiotracking data from wolves (Canis lupus) in the Bialowieza Forest, Poland, to determine (1) differences between methods of estimating mean wolf activity and daily activity patterns, (2) whether activity estimated by changes in signal strength is dependent on the distance between the radiotracked wolf and the tracker, (3) radiotracker influence on wolf activity estimates, and (4) accuracy of radio locations. Daily patterns of wolf activity estimated by changes in signal strength, movements, and activity sensors were similar. However, the mean time spent active estimated by changes in signal strength (55% of the time) was higher than those estimated by movements (34%) or sensors (32%). We obtained the most accurate estimates of activity by a combination of movement, signal strength, and sensor data (43%) or by combining movement and signal strength data (44%). Activity estimated by changes in signal strength did not vary with the distance between radiotracked animals and radio-trackers. The trackers had no detectable influence on activity and movements of wolves when the tracker-to-wolf distance was >200 m. There was a small but not significant influence if trackers were <200 m away during the day. The mean radiotracking error was 194 m (95% CI: 157-231 m). We recommend that data on movements always be included in estimates of mean time spent active because activity sensors lead to underestimates and changes in signal strength to overestimates. Distances traveled obtained by radiotracking should not be regarded as minimal distances traveled, since the likelihood that they are overestimated or underestimated depends on the relation between the accuracy of radio locations and the mean distance that an animal travels per radiotracking interval.

Spatial dynamics of a migratory wolf population in winter, south-central Ontario (1990-1995)

We examined the spatial distribution and movements of migratory wolves (Canis lupus lycaon) to a deer yard located adjacent to Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, during 5 winters from 1990 to 1995. Wolves from eastern and central Algonquin Provincial Park followed the annual migration of deer to yards located 13 km outside of the Park boundary. Spatial distributions were determined through mapping of telemetry locations and nearest neighbour analysis. We defined three spacing systems: consistent/high fidelity, clustered/moderate fidelity, and transitional/low fidelity. We found inconsistencies among packs in their adherence to these systems. Data indicate that areas of use changed quickly and tolerance levels among wolves in the deer yard were very high; alien wolves were recorded 163 times in close spatial and (or) temporal proximity. The social behaviour exhibited by this migratory population of wolves has never been recorded in a forested wolf-deer ecosystem. Factors that may contribute to this behavioural plasticity include food abundance, a high degree of genetic relatedness among wolf packs, and high rates of human-caused mortality.

Home range, activity and movements of a wolf pack in central Italy

Home range, habitat use, activity and movement patterns were studied in a pack of wolves in a mountainous region of Abruzzo, central Italy from June 1986 to March 1987. The home range, estimated by the minimum convex polygon from 421 radio locations, measured 197 km2and comprised several infrastructures and areas of human presence, including four garbage dumps and two offal sites. Core areas, calculated by the harmonic mean method, were located toward the centre of the home range where human disturbance and road density were lowest but forest cover was highest. During the time‐span of the study, home‐range use and movement patterns suggested a marked centrality in spatial behaviour and traditionality in retreat areas year‐round, both during pup‐rearing season and the following months. In addition, by being essentially nocturnal, resident wolves appeared to adopt tactics of temporal segregation from people to exploit food resources safely in the proximity of human settlements. Overall activity correlated with distance travelled (r = 0.90,P&lt;&lt; 0.001), and corresponded to cyclic nocturnal movements from retreat to feeding areas. Wolf movement rate between 20:00 and 04:00 h averaged 2.5 km/h but varied up to about 8 km/h, and daily distance travelled (x̄= 27 km/night; range 17–38 km/night) mostly depended on the location of traditional feeding sites. Home‐range configuration, habitat use, activity and movements all appeared highly integrated so as to represent the most functional compromise between avoidance of human inteference and exploitation of the available food resources.

Analysis of a model for wolf territories

A mechanism for territorial pattern formation in wolves is analysed using a spatially explicit mathematical model which incorporates wolf movement and scent marking. Model results reflect field observations: buffer zones where wolves are scarce arise between adjacent packs and near these buffer zones there are increased levels of scent marking. It is shown how the precise behavioral response of wolves to foreign scent-marks determines the qualitative form of the spatial territories. Realistic territories in two spatial dimensions require ‘switching’ of the movement and scent marking behavior in response to foreign scent marks.

Modelling territoriality and wolf–deer interactions

WE propose here a mechanism for territorial pattern formation in wolves (Canis lupus) and analyse it using a spatially explicit mathematical model incorporating wolf movement and scent marking. Model results reflect field observations from northeastern Minnesota: buffer zones where wolves are scarce arise between adjacent packs, and near these buffer zones there are increased levels of scent marking1,2. Territories are arranged in a spatial mosaic (Fig. 1) which covers the wolf range. In the model formulation no assumptions are made about actual existence or extent of wolf territory and buffer zones; these arise naturally as stable steady-state solutions to the equations. We show mathematically how reduced predation by wolves in the buffer zones provides a refuge for prey species. Field studies support this; distribution of a primary prey species, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), correlates negatively with that of wolves. Deer are found primarily in buffer zones3,4 (Fig. 2).

Winter Spatial Relationships of Wolves and Coyotes in Riding Mountain National Park, Manitoba

In Riding Mountain National Park, wolves ( Canis lupus ) and coyotes ( C. latrans ) overlapped temporally and spatially. Movements of coyotes relative to wolves were not random. Coyotes used active wolf areas, and followed wolf tracks rather than avoiding them. The movements of wolves were not altered by the presence of coyotes.

Wolf movements and population dynamics in Papineau-Labelle reserve, Quebec

From 1980 to 1984, wolf ecology was studied in Papineau-Labelle reserve, a 1667-km2 area characterized by three large deer yards (&gt; 1000 deer) located at the periphery. We obtained 2462 telementry locations from 43 collared wolves belonging to 4–8 packs. Mean pack size on 1 December was 5.6 wolves and density within territories averaged 2.8 animals/100 km2. Size of territories ranged between 85 and 325 km2 (mean 199 km2) and no seasonal variations were noted for most packs. But those packs in contact with a large deer yard generally used that portion of their territory more intensely in winter. The majority of wolves (12/15) dispersed when they were 10–20 months old and traveled an average distance of 40 km. Dispersal likely resulted from the onset of sexual maturity and, possibly, from social stress. Mortality rate of collared wolves (36%) was moderate and similar to that of noncollared wolves. Known causes of mortality were all human related: trapping (23), hunting (6), and road kills (6). Nonetheless, I conclude that this population is regulated largely by social factors and not by food stress.

Solitary living and extraterritorial movements of wolves in relation to social status and prey abundance

This study examines three factors encouraging wolf (Canis lupus) dispersal: prey abundnance, age of the animals, and their sex. Factors are related to the frequency at which wolves (n = 54) dissociated from their packs and (or) engaged in extraterritorial movements. From December to April, radio-collared pup, yearling, and adult pack members were observed alone in 28, 57, and 21% of the observations, respectively. A low prey base did not increase solitary living or excursion frequency of pups, did increase both traits in yearlings, and increased only solitary living among adults. Yearling and adult females were dissociated from their packs more frequently than males. Yearling females travelled more frequently outside their territories than did yearling males. On average, pup, yearling, and adult individuals made 1.1, 3.0, and 1.0 extraterritorial excursions per year, respectively. Such movements, mostly in winter, are interpreted as predispersal forays (failed dispersal), but also as an immediate action to survive through a temporary resource failure. Dispersal in wolves appears as a gradual and dynamic dissociation process extended over a period of a few months to a few years and beginning as early as 10 months of age. During extraterritorial movements, solitary wolves did not use areas between pack territories more intensively. A total of 23 pack excursions were witnessed, significantly more in the low prey area.

Movements of Young Wolves in the Northwest Territories of Canada

Journal Article Movements of Young Wolves in the Northwest Territories of Canada Get access E. Kuyt E. Kuyt Canadian Wildlife Service, Yellowknife, N. W. T. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Journal of Mammalogy, Volume 43, Issue 2, 29 May 1962, Pages 270–271, https://doi.org/10.2307/1377111 Published: 29 May 1962 Article history Received: 05 June 1961 Published: 29 May 1962

Timber Wolf Movements on Sibley Peninsula, Ontario

Timber Wolf Movements on Sibley Peninsula, Ontario