Wisconsin Geological Research Articles

Studying Wisconsin: The Life of Increase Lapham, Early Chronicler of Plants, Rocks, Rivers, Mounds, and All Things Wisconsin by Martha Bergland and Paul G. Hayes

Reviewed by: Studying Wisconsin: The Life of Increase Lapham, Early Chronicler of Plants, Rocks, Rivers, Mounds, and All Things Wisconsin by Martha Bergland and Paul G. Hayes Robert Morrissey Martha Bergland and Paul G. Hayes, Studying Wisconsin: The Life of Increase Lapham, Early Chronicler of Plants, Rocks, Rivers, Mounds, and All Things Wisconsin. Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society Press, 2014. 424 pp. $26.95. Increase Allen Lapham was a key figure in nineteenth century Wisconsin. As Americans were exploring and exploiting the Midwest for the first time in the mid-nineteenth century, Lapham joined the settler colonial process as an early scientist, helping to make meaning and construct knowledge in this newly opened land. Characteristic of his era of generalist scientists, he was an “all-in-one botanist, zoologist, meteorologist, geologist, archaeologist, and naturalist,” with “a keen all-encompassing eye” (349). Bringing his impressive skills to Wisconsin territory, he helped to found early scientific and academic institutions, authored key scientific publications, and brought the midwestern landscape and its natural features into the scientific conversations of nineteenth century America. As Bergland and Hayes show in this impressively written and rich biography, Lapham’s impact on scientific knowledge in the early Midwest was huge. This is the first full-length biography of Lapham and thus the first to consider Lapham’s life before his important career in Wisconsin. The biography is based on Lapham’s papers, and also on a crucial previous work—the 1,500-page edited transcript of Lapham’s papers, made after his death by his daughter Julia. The authors’ careful use of intimate sources provides great access into Lapham’s life and career. From his journals, Bergland and Hayes reconstruct Lapham’s activities in rich and satisfying detail, from his early education to his successes and setbacks. At the same time, close reliance on these sources sometimes commits the authors to a fairly uncritical view of Lapham that neglects wider contexts for understanding his life and its larger significance. The book succeeds impressively as an account of Lapham’s remarkable and fascinating career. Born in New York to a Quaker canal engineer and carpenter, Lapham learned about rocks as a young boy by living next to canal ditches. He began a remarkable self-education by subscribing to Yale professor Benjamin Silliman’s Journal of Science at the age of fifteen. Starting his own career as a canal engineer on construction projects in New York, Kentucky, and Ohio, he pursued botany and natural history on the side, nurturing his passion by writing geological papers that he sent to Silliman, as well as in conversation with his brother Darius. The authors treat [End Page 164] the young Lapham as an astonishing intellect with massive ambition and somewhat inexplicable motives. As they write, “his mind needed . . . scientific knowledge the way his body needed meat and bread” (36). By the 1830s Lapham had helped to found historical and philosophical societies and a geological survey in Ohio. In 1836, however, he joined a land speculator and early Milwaukee promoter and headed west to work as a surveyor and engineer on the proposed Milwaukee and Rock River Canal. Economic downturns in the 1830s ruined his early plans, but he nevertheless settled permanently in Wisconsin, where he found a new field for scientific endeavor. He went on scientific explorations around the state, building a huge botanical collection, and sending specimens to eminent natural historians like Silliman and Asa Gray at Harvard. By 1844, he published a Geography of Wisconsin, which launched his most consistent career as a writer. Fascinated by Indian mounds he discovered on his travels, he wrote Antiquities of Wisconsin in 1855. But his outsider status made his scientific career precarious. His planned catalog of American grasses went unfunded. And while he helped to found the Wisconsin Historical Society and the Wisconsin Geological Survey, he did much labor without compensation, eventually developing resentment for the way his work went underappreciated. Although his pioneering storm-warning system (precursor to the National Weather Service) finally gained him a steady salary, Lapham often worked for nothing and only achieved financial stability late in life. For the authors, a great theme of Lapham’s life is his selfless...

Correct Delineation of Capture Zones Using Particle Tracking under Transient Conditions

GroundwaterVolume 52, Issue 3 p. 332-334 Technical Commentary/ Correct Delineation of Capture Zones Using Particle Tracking under Transient Conditions Todd W. Rayne, Corresponding Author Todd W. Rayne Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison, WI.Corresponding author: Department of Geosciences, Hamilton College, Clinton, NY 13323; trayne@hamilton.eduSearch for more papers by this authorKenneth R. Bradbury, Kenneth R. Bradbury Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison, WI.Search for more papers by this authorChunmiao Zheng, Chunmiao Zheng Department of Geological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL. Department of Energy and Resources Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author Todd W. Rayne, Corresponding Author Todd W. Rayne Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison, WI.Corresponding author: Department of Geosciences, Hamilton College, Clinton, NY 13323; trayne@hamilton.eduSearch for more papers by this authorKenneth R. Bradbury, Kenneth R. Bradbury Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison, WI.Search for more papers by this authorChunmiao Zheng, Chunmiao Zheng Department of Geological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL. Department of Energy and Resources Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 18 November 2013 https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12141Citations: 11Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume52, Issue3May/June 2014Pages 332-334 RelatedInformation

Is One an Upper Limit for Natural Hydraulic Gradients?

GroundwaterVolume 46, Issue 4 p. 518-520 Is One an Upper Limit for Natural Hydraulic Gradients? D.J. Hart, Corresponding Author D.J. Hart Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, WI 53705; (608) 262-2307; fax: (608) 262-8086; djhart@wisc.eduSearch for more papers by this authorK.R. Bradbury, K.R. Bradbury Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, WI 53705.Search for more papers by this authorM.B. Gotkowitz, M.B. Gotkowitz Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, WI 53705.Search for more papers by this author D.J. Hart, Corresponding Author D.J. Hart Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, WI 53705; (608) 262-2307; fax: (608) 262-8086; djhart@wisc.eduSearch for more papers by this authorK.R. Bradbury, K.R. Bradbury Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, WI 53705.Search for more papers by this authorM.B. Gotkowitz, M.B. Gotkowitz Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, WI 53705.Search for more papers by this author First published: 04 July 2008 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2008.00433.xCitations: 7Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume46, Issue4July–August 2008Pages 518-520 RelatedInformation

A simple daily soil–water balance model for estimating the spatial and temporal distribution of groundwater recharge in temperate humid areas

Quantifying the spatial and temporal distribution of natural groundwater recharge is usually a prerequisite for effective groundwater modeling and management. As flow models become increasingly utilized for management decisions, there is an increased need for simple, practical methods to delineate recharge zones and quantify recharge rates. Existing models for estimating recharge distributions are data intensive, require extensive parameterization, and take a significant investment of time in order to establish. The Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey (WGNHS) has developed a simple daily soil–water balance (SWB) model that uses readily available soil, land cover, topographic, and climatic data in conjunction with a geographic information system (GIS) to estimate the temporal and spatial distribution of groundwater recharge at the watershed scale for temperate humid areas. To demonstrate the methodology and the applicability and performance of the model, two case studies are presented: one for the forested Trout Lake watershed of north central Wisconsin, USA and the other for the urban-agricultural Pheasant Branch Creek watershed of south central Wisconsin, USA. Overall, the SWB model performs well and presents modelers and planners with a practical tool for providing recharge estimates for modeling and water resource planning purposes in humid areas.

Book Reviews

Book Reviews

Urban Field Geology for K-8 Teachers

Geologists have long appreciated the value of field trips. Likewise, the National Science Education Standards recommend them for K-8 science curriculum. Yet, few teachers avail themselves of quality field opportunities close to home. We presented summer institutes for urban teachers in Milwaukee that centered on several Lake Michigan beaches within the bounds of their school district. Field and laboratory activities were developed in the context of the geology of southeastern Wisconsin. As an example activity, we compared the sand from four different beaches for grain size, magnetite content, as well as fossil and modern Zebra Mussel shells. The different beaches show different characteristics that were related to their location and origin. We encouraged the good field trip teaching practices of “Teaming-Up,” reducing novelty space, and pre- and post-field trip activities. The teachers shared lesson plans and developed action plans for implementing the changes in their curriculum.We determined that the teachers in these three-week workshops increased their personal belief in their ability to teach earth science more effectively. They felt more comfortable with content material and found that action plans were an effective way to enact change regarding field trips in their curriculum and in their schools.

New map reveals origin and geology of North American mid‐continent rift

New aeromagnetic data from the north central United States are helping geophysicists and geologists better understand the 1.1‐billion‐year‐old mid‐continent rift, one of the fundamental components of the Precambrian basement of North America.A detailed geologic map of part of the rift is being made and a myriad of new details concerning the history of rift subsidence, volcanism, sedimentation, and inversion are being deciphered. The data are also helping to establish a link between well‐known parts of the rift in the Lake Superior region, where exposures of rift‐related rocks are abundant and where a comprehensive geophysical data base has existed for more than a decade, and the buried extension of the rift to the southwest. Scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Minnesota Geological Survey the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey and Macalester College are using the new data in conjunction with field and laboratory investigations in a joint study that promises to produce new insights into the history and formation of the rift.

Groundwater hydrology

The international conference on Advances in Ground‐Water Hydrology was held November 16–19, 1988, in Tampa, Fla. More than 320 scientists and engineers attended the conference, which was dedicated to the memory of the late C. V. Theis, formerly with the U.S. Geological Survey, an AGU Fellow, holder of the Robert E. Horton Medal, and member of the AGU Hydrology Section since 1934. The 3‐day meeting had presentations by more than 100 speakers from Canada, Europe, and the U.S. The conference was organized to review advances in hydrology in the past 10 years. Discussions were held on the need for research and practical applications in groundwater hydrology for the 1990s. The conference was sponsored by the American Institute of Hydrology, in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, Environmental Protection Agency, Universities Council on Water Resources, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, American Geological Institute, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, American Water Resources Association, Geological Society of America, and International Association of Hydrogeologists.

A Comparison of Office‐Derived vs. Field‐Derived Water Table Maps for a Sandy Unconfined Aquifer

AbstractThis study compares the accuracy of two types of water table maps both of which were constructed with the object of optimizing future mapping efforts in similar environments. The. first type of map is based solely on office information, with no field verification. The second type of map is based on careful field mapping using numerous measurement points.The office‐derived maps were based on topography, surface water features, existing reports, maps and data in the files of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey; the data were not field‐verified. The field‐derived maps used a dense network of 236 piezometers at 176 sites in an area of approximately 170 square miles. The field project was much more expensive and labor‐intensive than was the construction of office‐derived maps for the same area.The two methods produce water table maps which agree to an appreciable extent, the greatest agreement being in areas having ground water‐fed streams. Differences in water table elevations indicated by the two methods range from negligible to approximately 5 feet. Thus, depending upon the availability of existing information, relatively accurate water table elevations can be delineated in similar sandy unconfined aquifers without time‐consuming and expensive field work that drilling and piezometer installation entails.Preliminary construction of office‐derived water table maps enables researchers to use their resources efficiently. In some situations, expensive installation of wells and piezometers for a regional monitoring network may add little accuracy to the regional map. For localized problems, collection of additional field data will always be necessary, but can be guided by the office‐derived maps. The authors caution that this technique may only be applicable to sandy, unconfined aquifers in humid climates.

Chemistry of atmospheric precipitation in the north-central united states: Influence of sulfate, nitrate, ammonia and calcareous soil particulates

The supply of alkaline soil dust and gaseous NH 3 available to neutralize anthropogenic acids in the atmosphere controls the acidity of precipitation in the north-central United States. Major ions and trace metals were determined in precipitation-event and snow-core samples from sites along a 600 km transect from the North Dakota prairie to the forests of northeastern Minnesota, collected during the period April 1978–June 1979. Acidity increased 4-fold from west to east as the effect of alkaline dust and NH 3 decreased with increasing distance from the cultivated prairie; calcium and Mg 2+ decreased 2 to 3-fold across the transect. However, minimum concentrations of NH 4 + and SO 4 2− were observed at Itasca, the central site. Natural emissions of these elements were important in the west, while anthropogenic emissions were responsible for the higher concentrations in the east. Wet deposition of H + decreased 8-fold and deposition of NO 3 − and SO 4 2− decreased 1.5 to 2-fold from Hovland in the east to Tewaukon in the west. Wet deposition of the metal cations increased from Hovland to Tewaukon. Dry deposition followed a similar trend. Winter snow cover and freezing temperatures, which decreased airborne soil dust and the evolution of NH 3 from the prairie soils, led to an increase in precipitation acidity at all sites. The acid increase was accompanied by a decrease in alkaline metal cations, especially Ca 2+, and in NH 4 +. At Hovland SO 4 2− and NO 3 − also increased during the winter. The occurrence of snow events at Tewaukon that were appreciably more acid than the snowpack accumulated there indicates that snow was neutralized after it fell by alkaline dust entrained in resuspended snow, or deposited separately. Winter inputs of acid are especially important because they are released during a short period in the spring. Over half of the acid input at Hovland occurred during the winter. Precipitation inputs of P and N probably benefit nutrient-poor ecosystems in the north-central United States. However, acid precipitation at Hovland is approaching levels known to cause adverse effects in sensitive regions. The geology of northeastern Minnesota, adjoining Ontario, and northern Wisconsin is similar to that in areas where lake acidification and losses of fish populations have occurred, so that such problems may eventually occur in central North America.

1980 Midwest Meeting

The sixth annual Midwest AGU Meeting was held at Holmes Center, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, on September 18 and 19,1980. Over 200 registrants presented 95 papers in 12 sessions: Isotope Studies of Hydrologic Processes, chaired by E. C. Perry, Jr., and C. W. Montgomery, Northern Illinois University; Petrology and Geochemistry, chaired by J. Berg, Northern Illinois University; Late Precambrian Magmatism, chaired by J . Berg and M. G. Mudrey, Jr., Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey; Midwest Coal Hydrology, D. E. Lindorff, Illinois State Geological Survey, and T. Naymik, Illinois State Water Survey; Hydrology, D. E. Lindorff; General Geophysics, C. P. Ervin, Northern Illinois University; Tectonics of the Transantarctic Mountains, P. N. Webb, Northern Illinois University; Northern Illinois Deep Drill Hole, B. Haimson, University of Wisconsin, and W. J. Hinze, Purdue University; Rift Tectonics in the Mississippi Embayment, T. C. Buschbach, Saint Louis University; Geology and Tectonics of the Pre‐Mt. Simon Clastics in the Midcontinent, W. J. Hinze and E. G. Lidiak, University of Pittsburgh; Paleozoic Paleomagnetism of the Midcontinent, V. A. Schmidt, University of Pittsburgh; Midcontinent Seismology, O. W. Nuttli, Saint Louis University.The general session was opened with a welcoming address by James D. Norris, dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. Jack Simon, chief of the Illinois State Geological Survey, described the role of the Survey during its first 75 years and went on to discuss its future responsibilities in an after dinner speech on Thursday evening.

North Dakota geological map

The first comprehensive geologic map of North Dakota, delineating 36 types of surface and near‐surface rocks and sediments, has been published by the United States Geological Survey. Prepared by the North Dakota Geological Survey in cooperation with the U.S.G.S., the map should be useful for the exploration of minerals, oil, gas, coal, and underground water and for land‐use planning.The principal author is Lee Clayton, now at the Wisconsin Geological Survey, formerly at the University of North Dakota's geology department. He was assisted by John P. Bluemle, Clarence G. Carlson, and Stephen R. Moran, geologists with the North Dakota Geological Survey when the map was compiled.

Peat Mounds of Southeastern Wisconsin

Soil Survey HorizonsVolume 6, Issue 2 p. 15-17 Article Peat Mounds of Southeastern Wisconsin† Edward J. Ciolkosz, Edward J. CiolkoszSearch for more papers by this author Edward J. Ciolkosz, Edward J. CiolkoszSearch for more papers by this author First published: Summer 1965 https://doi.org/10.2136/sh1965.2.0015Citations: 1 † The observations on which this article is based were made during the summers of 1963 and 1964 while soil mapping for the Soil Survey Division of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article.Citing Literature Volume6, Issue2Summer 1965Pages 15-17 RelatedInformation

CORRELATION OF GRAVITY ANOMALIES WITH THE KEWEENAWAN GEOLOGY OF WISCONSIN AND MINNESOTA

Research Article| August 01, 1956 CORRELATION OF GRAVITY ANOMALIES WITH THE KEWEENAWAN GEOLOGY OF WISCONSIN AND MINNESOTA EDWARD THIEL EDWARD THIEL UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Author and Article Information EDWARD THIEL UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Publisher: Geological Society of America Received: 21 Jun 1955 First Online: 02 Mar 2017 Online ISSN: 1943-2674 Print ISSN: 0016-7606 Copyright 1956, The Geological Society of America, Inc. Copyright is not claimed on any material prepared by U.S. government employees within the scope of their employment. GSA Bulletin (1956) 67 (8): 1079–1100. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[1079:COGAWT]2.0.CO;2 Article history Received: 21 Jun 1955 First Online: 02 Mar 2017 Cite View This Citation Add to Citation Manager Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Search Site Citation EDWARD THIEL; CORRELATION OF GRAVITY ANOMALIES WITH THE KEWEENAWAN GEOLOGY OF WISCONSIN AND MINNESOTA. GSA Bulletin 1956;; 67 (8): 1079–1100. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[1079:COGAWT]2.0.CO;2 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Refmanager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentBy SocietyGSA Bulletin Search Advanced Search Abstract Gravitational mapping by the University of Wisconsin has delineated what appears to be the largest positive-anomaly feature on the North American continent, extending from the Lake Superior region southwest into Kansas. For the greater part of its length this midcontinent gravity high is flanked on both sides by gravity lows. Because the southern part of the anomalous area is blanketed by Paleozoic sediments, the cause of the anomaly was sought first at its northern end, around Lake Superior, where Precambrian rocks crop out to facilitate a correlation of gravity and geology.Around western Lake Superior the positive anomalies correlate with Keweenawan lava and gabbro. The negative anomaly on the Bayfield Peninsula reflects a thick accumulation of sandstone and shale which was deposited in the subsiding Lake Superior syncline during Upper Keweenawan time. A second thick accumulation of sedimentary rocks may underlie the gravity low at Cumberland. Steep gravity gradients indicate the Douglas fault. A second major fault symmetric to the Douglas fault is mapped in northwestern Wisconsin on the opposite side of the Lake Superior syncline. The center of the syncline has been thrust upward between the two faults as a horst. A traverse along the spit at Duluth fails to detect the North Shore fault as it is usually mapped; if the fault exists, no great amount of sandstone is placed in juxtaposition to basaltic lava. Detailed correlation of gravity and geology is presented on maps and structure sections along lines of gravity traverse.The usual isostatic correction cannot reduce the gravity differentials around western Lake Superior. A geological correction which allows for the effects of near-surface geology does account for most of the anomalies. Any attempt to compute the extent of crustal warping at depth without allowing for the near-surface geology would have led to considerable error. This content is PDF only. Please click on the PDF icon to access. First Page Preview Close Modal You do not have access to this content, please speak to your institutional administrator if you feel you should have access.

Memorial to Samuel Weidman, 1870–1945

Samuel Weidman, Professor Emeritus of Geology at the University of Oklahoma, field worker, research student, writer of scientific publications, teacher, and beloved friend, died after a long illness on September 22, 1945. Dr. Weidman was born October 11, 1870, near Reedsburg, Wisconsin, in a district noteworthy for the large number of students attending high school and college. He was graduated from Reedsburg high school in 1888 and taught a country school the following year. In 1890, he enrolled at the University of Wisconsin, electing an honor course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science, which he completed in 1894. His graduate studies were pursued under fellowships at the University of Chicago and the University of Wisconsin. In 1898, the degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred upon him at the latter institution. The next year he was married to Miss Adda Westenhaver, a graduate of the University of Wisconsin, School of Music. As geologist for the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, 1899-1918, his investigations included the igneous rocks of Fox River Valley, the Baraboo iron-bearing district, the Geology of Central Wisconsin and the soils of a part of northwestern Wisconsin. His summers were spent in field work, travelling by use of horses, a bicycle, and on foot. His winters were spent in studying collections and writing numerous bulletins of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey and articles for the Journal of Geology, the American Journal of Science, and the Wisconsin Engineer. In 1920, he transferred to the University of Oklahoma, advancing to Professor of Geology in 1925 and Professor Emeritus in 1943. For several years, he was chairman of the University Research Committee. In Oklahoma, he did field work in the Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains and the zinc and lead region of northeastern Oklahoma. His work on the MiamiPitcher Zinc and Lead District was published by the University of Oklahoma Press in 1932. Dr. Weidman became a fellow of Geological Society of America in 1903, fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the Oklahoma Academy of Science of which he was president in 1924. He was a member of American Institute of Mining and Mineralogical Engineers, Association of American Geographers, American Association of University Professors, and the University of Wisconsin Chapter of Sigma Xi.

Some Foods of Young Great Blue Herons

In the course of investigations by the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey concerning the productivity of some of the lakes in the Trout Lake region of northeastern Wisconsin, it was observed that these waters furnished a supply of food for considerable numbers of fish-eating birds. These birds include the great blue heron (Ar dea her odias her odias), the American merganser (Mergus merganser americanus), the common loon (Gavia immer immer), and the belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon alcyon). All of these are common breeders in the region but the great blue heron is the most conspicuous from the standpoint of numbers as well as size. From the first of June until the latter part of August one or several of these herons can almost always be seen on any lake known to contain fish. Within a radius of a few miles of Trout Lake two great blue heron rookeries have been located and it seems likely that there are more in the vicinity. One of these rookeries was made up of 138 nests in the 1940 season. The other consisted of 75 nests. Only active nests were counted. Active nests were designated as such only when young birds could be seen in the nests, or when whitewash evidence was plain enough to indicate that the nest was or had been recently occupied. When the nest census was made from one to four young could be seen in most of the nests. Later experience revealed that when not being fed some or all of the young birds lie quietly on the nest, completely hidden from view beneath. Thus some of the nests originally thought to contain only one bird, later were found to have two, three, or even four. On this basis it is probably safe to assume that the average number of young to a nest was at least two, and perhaps three. Since it was obvious that the lakes supported this heron population to a great extent, it became desirable to the group engaged in fish growth and population studies to determine what part fishes played in the diet of the herons. This was to be accomplished by first identifying the kinds of food taken by the herons. Then an estimate was to be made of the total pounds of fish consumed by either one or both rookeries during a given period of time. This estimate, calculated for the nesting season, would indicate, perhaps, whether the pr?dation of the herons upon the fishes constituted any appreciable drain upon this important natural resource of the lake region. Obviously any such estimate would have to be based on definite observations as to the number of times a young heron was fed in a certain period and the quantity of food it received at each feeding.

The Annual Energy Budget of an Inland Lake

The variation in the quantity of solar radiation delivered to the surface of an inland lake during the course of the year is the principal factor in determining the physical, chemical and biological cycle of changes that take place within the water. This is true especially of lakes which are situated in temperate latitudes where there are considerable differences between summer and winter temperatures of the air and of the water. In the deeper lakes which become covered with ice for a few to several weeks during the winter, the annual cycle consists of four phases which correspond roughly to the four seasons of the year. (1) There is a winter stagnation period in which the water is inversely stratified while the lake is covered with ice; that is, the warmest water is at the bottom and the coldest at the surface. (2) There is an overturning and circulation of the entire body of water following the disappearance of the ice in spring. (3) As the temperature rises above the point of maximum density (40 C.) in the spring, the free circulation of the water is hindered as a result of the difference in density between the warm upper layer and the cold lower stratum; this is due to the fact that most of the warming takes place in a comparatively thin upper stratum. From 65 to 90 per cent or more of the sun and sky radiation is cut off by the upper meter of water, depending upon the color and the transparency. This large reduction is due chiefly to reflection at the surface, to the rapid absorption of the radiation by the water itself and by the stains and suspensoids that may be present in the water. With the further rise in the temperature of the upper water as the season advances, a summer stratification is established. This is a direct stratification in which there is a warm upper stratum, a cold lower stratum and a transition zone between them in which the temperature changes rapidly from that of the warm upper water to that of the cold stratum below; naming them in order from surf ace to bottom, they are known as the epilimnion, the thermocline or mesolimnion, and the hypolimnion. In the deeper lakes these three strata persist throughout the summer. (4) The fourth stage is represented by the autumnal cooling and overturning, which is followed by a complete circulation of the water until the lake becomes covered with ice. The circulation of the water in spring and autumn distributes the dissolved substances uniformly from surface to bottom, but a more or less marked difference in the chemical character of the upper and lower strata develops during the two stratification periods, especially in summer. The seasonal changes in the physical and chemical characteristics of the water have an important effect upon aquatic life. The spring rise in temperature speeds up life processes and the increase in the amount of solar radiation at this time makes conditions more favorable for photosynthesis. Likewise the circulation of the water in spring and autumn brings dissolved substances into the upper stratum, which is the zone of photosynthesis, where they can be readily obtained by the aquatic plants. The phytoplankton responds promptly to these favorable growing conditions and, as a result, the standing crop of plankton is usually much larger during the two circulation periods 1 From the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Notes and reports No. 92.

Growth of the Small-Mouthed Black Bass, Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede, in Wisconsin Waters

U P to the present time very little work has been done on the growth of the small-mouthed bass in natural waters. Reighard (1928) studied the growth of the species in Loon and Whitefish lakes in Gogebic County, Michigan, Hile (1931) in Indiana, and Tester (1932) in some of the waters of Ontario. Hubbs and Bailey (1938) have recently published an excellent account of the ecology and life history of the small-mouth, in which the question of growth is considered. The material for the present study was obtained through the codperation of the anglers of the state, the Wisconsin Conservation Department, the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Anglers have contributed scales from 524 specimens, and 1013 specimens have been taken by the staff of the Trout Lake Limnological Laboratory over a period of about ten years. The laboratory collections were made in connection with food, parasite and population studies. The scale collections contributed by anglers and part of those obtained by the laboratory staff have been used in reports on the growth of the smallmouth and of four other species of game fishes (Juday and Schneberger, 1930, 1931; Juday and Bennett, 1935; Juday and Schloemer, 1936, 1938). Much of the laboratory material was not included in these reports, which were issued in mimeographed form; but all of the usable material is included in the present study. The calculations used in this paper were made on the basis of standard length in millimeters, assuming that the scale-body length ratio remains constant throughout life. Conversions from standard to total lengths and vice versa were made by using the ratio 1: 1.18 (see Table 1). All total lengths are given in inches and standard lengths in millimeters. Of the 1537 small-mouths represented in the collection, 86 (5.6o) had to be discarded because the scales were regenerate or otherwise unreadable, thus leaving 1451 specimens with readable scales; all of the unreadable scales belonged to the laboratory collection. In addition, 129 specimens belonged to the O and I age groups and they have been eliminated from the average growth calculations, so that the data really deal with only 1322 specimens of small-mouthed black bass.

The Growth of the Large Mouthed Black Bass, Huro salmoides (Lacepede), in the Waters of Wisconsin

A GREAT deal of careful research has been published, during the last ten years, dealing with growth stpdies of fish. Nearly all of these studies have been based upon material collected either by the scientific worker and his staff (using nets) or upon material obtained by the scientist from the catches of commercial fishermen. These publications cover a large number of species, both among those considered of economic importance as food fish and those of lesser direct economic importance, often classified as rough fish and minnows. However, a brief survey of these publications brings to light the fact that the fish of greatest importance to the fishing public, namely those classified as the more important game species, have been partially neglected. The reason for this is obvious. Game laws restrict these species from the catches of commercial fishermen in nearly all of our inland lakes. Although the scientist is less restricted in his activities, he feels that to kill a large number of important game fish in lakes frequented by fishermen would arouse adverse public opinion, perhaps to the extent that his own activities might be curtailed. As long as the game fish rank first in importance to the public, they should in no way be neglected, although the worker must resort to new methods of obtaining the desired data. With the purpose of obtaining materials for gamefish growth studies, the Wisconsin Conservation Department, the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, and the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey (in 1928) requested anglers to cooperate with them by sending in scales from their catches, along with accurate measurements of lengths and weights, determinations of sex, and the lake from which the fish were taken. As soon as this request became widely known, the cooperation was hearty and to date a large amount of data has been collected, not only from the five most important game fish species, i.e., Esox masquinongy, E. lucius, Stizostedion vitreum, Huro salmoides and Micropterus dolomieu, but also much material from some of the less important species, namely, the bluegill, rock bass, white bass, and trouts. Since this type of collecting has been in progress, four general reports have been published (mimeographed) (Juday and Schneberger, 1930 and 1933, Juday and Bennett, 1935, Juday and Schloemer, 1936). At the present time, enough materials are available for more detailed reports upon individual species. The first of these, dealing with the growth of the muskellunge in Wisconsin, is already published (Schloemer, 1936). The recent trend in fisheries biology research is toward fish management,

Fourth Annual Tri-State (Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin) Geological Field Conference

Fourth Annual Tri-State (Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin) Geological Field Conference