Wire Floors Research Articles

The persistence of drug resistant Escherichia coli in the intestinal flora of healthy broiler chicks.

Antibacterial drugs (oxytetracycline, streptomycin and sulphonamides) were included in the drinking water of healthy broiler chicks from the sixth to the twentieth day of life to select a resistant gut flora. On the twenty-first day the birds were divided into three groups and reared in separate rooms until 100 days of age. One group was housed in cages with wire floors while the others were reared on litter. Faeces from adult hens were added regularly to the litter of one of these groups to determine its effect on the gut flora of the chicks. The ecology of Escherichia coli was studied using O-serotyping, biotyping and antibacterial drug resistogram typing. The proportion of E. coli in the dominant faecal flora resistant to two to four antibacterial drugs increased with time to reach a peak several days after the drugs were withdrawn. Thereafter, the level of drug resistance in the E. coli declined equally in all three groups. The majority of organisms with multiple resistance were derived from biotypes of O-serotypes initially resistant to only one drug and were identified before the drugs were administered. The decline in the level of resistance in the dominant faecal flora after the fourth week was due to the appearance of either new O-serotypes or new biotypes of O-serotypes previously shown to be multiply resistant, and which were either sensitive or resistant to only one drug. It is probably that these new strains were derived from the food since several O-serotypes appeared simultaneously in all three groups of birds.

Effects of sex, strain and type of perch on perching behaviour in the domestic fowl

This paper reports a study of perching behaviour in the domestic fowl, in which the use of various types of perches by both sexes of three strains of pen-housed, 15-week-old chickens (‘S’ line, White Leghorn type; ‘T’ line, derived from a Rhode Island Red × Light Sussex cross; ‘J’ line, Brown Leghorn) was compared. The perching variables tested were the height and shape of the perch and the type of material (wood or wire) from which it was constructed. A preliminary experiment indicated that there was no avoidance of those areas of the pens in which the perches were subsequently placed. Both sexes used the perches equally, but strain was an important factor affecting perching behaviour. Birds of the ‘J’ line almost completely failed to use high perches, but usage was greater in ‘T’-line and greatest in ‘S’-line birds. These strain differences were not due to weight disparity or to social pressure. Individual preferences were observed. Some birds perched (perchers) where-as others did not (non-perchers). Repeated exposure increased the time spent on the perch by perchers but did not convert non-perchers into perchers. The type of material (wood or wire) from which the perches were constructed had little effect on behaviour. Low perches were used more than high ones, although they were never attractive, and square perches were used considerably more than lengths of wood. There were no significant preferences for wire or litter in ‘S’-line and ‘T’-line birds but ‘J’-line birds avoided wire. The welfare implications of these results are interesting. Low levels of perching on the length of wood, which is the type of perch most commonly used in semi-intensive housing, suggest that more appropriate perches could be designed. Although wire floors are commonly considered undesirable, ‘S’- and ‘T’-line birds showed no avoidance of wire. The results suggest that perching has a high genetic variance and, therefore, to keep, in line with industrial trends, it should be possible to select for birds which do and which do not perch.

The Effect of Floor Type on the Development of Breast Blisters and Feather Follicle Infections in Broilers

The effect of floor types on the incidence of feather follicle infection and breast blisters in caged broilers was investigated in two trials. Broilers were reared on corn-soybean meal diets with warm-room brooding. Floor types included litter (control), wire, wire covered with various types of plastic mats, and wire woven with surgical tubing. In trial 1, the effect of a coccidiostat (monensin, 120 mg/kg of feed) was investigated for broilers not on litter, and in trial 2, the effect of supplemental zinc was investigated.Broilers were processed in the laboratory processing plant when they were 51 (trial 1) and 53 days old (trial 2). Carcasses were evaluated for the occurrence of fleshing downgrades, crooked keels, feather follicle infection, and breast blisters. Incidence of feather follicle infection was low for broilers on litter or wire floor and high for broilers reared on plastic mats. Breast blister incidence was low for broilers on litter and plastic mats and was high for broilers on the wire floor. Overall carcass quality for litter (control) was superior to any of the cage treatments. Neither the coccidiostat nor supplemental zinc affected the incidence of breast blisters or feather follicle infection.

The Effect of Limited-Area Brooding on Broiler Chicken Performance

Four limited-area brooding systems were compared to full-house brooding to determine the effect on growth rate, feed conversion, and mortality. The limited-area brooding systems evaluated were: 1) half-house, 2) third-house, 3) quarter-house for initial brooding followed by half-house for second brooding stage, and 4) quarter-house with wire floor for initial brooding followed by half-house with litter for second stage. Floor space allocations in the limited areas were determined by multiplying the area allocation at market age by the ratio of the time in the limited area to the total growing time. There were no significant differences in growth rate or feed conversion at market age among the brooding systems evaluated. Mortalities for the conventional full-house system, and the quarter-house system with wire floor were significantly greater than for the third-house system and quarter-house system with litter.

Eimeria acervulina Infection in the Chicken: Sulfur Amino Acid Requirement of the Chick During Acute Coccidiosis

Five assays were conducted to determine whether Eimeria acervulina infection would alter the chick's sulfur amino acid (SAA) requirement. Chicks were housed in heated starter batteries with raised wire floors and fed completely purified crystalline amino acid diets.With light to moderate E. acervulina infection, data were somewhat inconclusive. In Assay 1, infected birds responded to levels of SAA above those required by healthy birds; but in two subsequent assays, no difference in SAA requirements due to infection could be detected. Therefore, two additional assays were conducted in birds inoculated with a heavy dose of E. acervulina oocysts. In neither of these assays did E. acervulina infection show any indication of altering SAA utilization. When data from the five studies are viewed together, it is clear that E. acervulina infection did not increase the chick's SAA requirement.

Effect of Brooding Density on Broiler Performance

A study was conducted to determine whether broiler performance is adversely affected when chicks are brooded under limited-area brooding densities or on a wire floor and then transferred and grown on a litter floor. Results showed that brooding broilers for the first 14 or 21 days at densities of 186 and 287 cm2, either on wire or litter, and then allowed a growing density of 697 cm2 on litter did not adversely affect the body weight at 14, 21, or 49 days, feed efficiency at 49 days, breast blisters at 49 days, or deformed legs at 49 days when compared to broilers brooded and reared on litter at a density of 697 cm2. At 186 cm2, the density is comparable with that of one-fourth house brooding; at 287 cm2, the density is comparable with that of one-third house brooding.

Relationship of Pen Height to Bone Strength of Broilers

Broilers reared in cages have a high incidence of wing breakage during processing. Three trials were conducted to determine the effects of cage dimensions and floor types on bone breaking strength and wing breakage during processing.Broilers were fed commercial-type diets and processed through the pickers at a commercial processing plant or a research facility. Broken bones were detected by palpation, and humeri and tibia were removed. Breaking strength was determined for the humeri and tibia with a testing instrument. Incidence of breast blisters, crooked keels, follicle infection, fleshing downgrades, and slabsidedness were determined in one trial.Cage height was the major factor affecting wing breakage and humerus strength. Incidence of wing breakage for broilers on wire floors with cages .64 m high was not significantly different from that of control broilers reared on litter with ceiling 2.54 m high. Humerus breaking strength was significantly reduced in two of three trials by the .64-m-high ceiling. Cage rearing increased the incidence of crooked keels and feather follicle infections.

Priorities in the cage size and flooring preferences of domestic hens

1. Battery‐kept hens (Sykes Tints) showed a preference for a large (0.76 x 0.86 m) over a small (0.38 x 0.43 m) cage, but preferred the smaller cage when this had a litter floor to the one 4 times larger with a wire floor. 2. The hens still showed a preference for litter when they could obtain access to it only by entering an even smaller cage (0.38 x 0.215 m) in which they could hardly turn round. This cage gave far less space than that recommended by the UK Welfare Codes (1971). 3. The experiments described demonstrate that hens prefer larger to smaller cages and litter floors to wire ones, but that they give highest priority to flooring. Increasing the space allowed to battery‐kept hens may not therefore be as “valuable” to them as giving them access to litter.

Effect of Floor Type and Density on the Integument of Egg-Layers

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of floor type and density on the integumental system of White Leghorn egg-layers.The floor types were deep litter and sloping wire, respectively, and densities of 7 and 14 birds/m2 were tested on both. In the experiment a total of 320 birds were evaluated with respect to lesions of the skin, plumage, claws and pads. In each bird 15 damage parameters were recorded and the data were analyzed by χ2-test with the birds confined on litter with 7 birds/m2 as a reference group.For 5 of the parameters a certain amount of damage was encountered without significant differences between the four groups. For the remaining 10 parameters the proportions of affected birds were significantly higher in one or both wire groups as compared to the reference group. For 8 of these 10 parameters the wire floor birds at high density showed from 1.1-fold to more than a 10-fold higher prevalence as compared to the wire birds at low density.Neck feather affections and denudation of dorsum were significantly more frequent in all experimental groups as compared to the reference group. The prevalence increased in the three experimental groups; the lowest was among the litter birds with 14 birds/m2 and the highest among birds confined on wire at high density.It was concluded that in general, integumental affection was more pronounced in the wire floor system as compared to the deep litter system. For some of the parameters more damage was encountered among high density birds as compared to low density birds, especially on birds housed in the wire floor systems.

Pigs Per Cage, Flooring Materials and Use of Soybean Hulls in Starter Diets for Pigs Housed in Triple Deck Nurseries

Three series of trials were conducted to compare performance of 21- to 28-day-old weaned pigs housed in triple deck cages. The first set of trials compared the performance of pigs housed six, eight and 10 to a cage (.25, .18 and .15 m2 of floor space per pig, respectively). The second set examined the performances of animals housed in cages with three types of floors: galvanized expanded metal, galvanized woven wire and oil tempered wire cloth (quarry wire). The third series focused on the effects of feeding soybean meal starter diets containing 10% dried whole whey with (1) 0 or (2) 10% soybean hulls. In addition, performance of pigs housed in the top, middle and bottom deck was compared in all trials and was found to be similar for all decks. Pigs were progressively cleaner from the top to bottom decks. In the first series, which involved 384 pigs with an average initial body weight of 5.7 kg, body weight and accumulative daily gain were lower (P<.05) for pigs housed 10 per cage than for those housed eight or six per cage after the fourth week of the trial. After the third week, accumulative daily feed was greatest (P<.05) for pigs housed six per cage. Accumulative feed to gain ratio was higher (P<.05) during the third, fourth and seventh week for six pigs than for eight pigs; the ratio was intermediate for pigs housed 10 per cage. The results suggest that 10 pigs may be housed per 1.2 × 1.2 m cage from 5 to 12 kg and that a maximum of eight pigs may be housed from 12 to 22 kilograms. In the second series, conducted with 312 pigs with an average initial weight of 7.0 kg, performance did not differ (P<.10) among pigs housed in cages with expanded metal, woven wire and quarry wire floors. However, foot pad scores were higher (P<.05) for pigs kept in cages with quarry wire floors, indicating more cuts, cracks and abrasions. In the third series, which involved 96 pigs with an average initial weight of 5.0 kg, the addition of 10% soybean hulls to the starter diet had no significant effect on performance, fecal consistency or cleanliness score.

Variations in the Incidence of Tibial Dyschondroplasia Associated with Different Environmental Conditions

Experiments were designed to study environmental factors that affect incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) in broiler chickens. A significant higher frequency of TD was observed in birds reared in floor pens vs. those maintained in a battery brooder with wire floors and fed the same diet. Incorporating either 5% raw or autoclaved broiler litter in the diet produced no significant effect on the incidence of the disease in chicks reared in floor pens covered with wood shavings or wire frames. During the first six months of 1979, the incidence of TD declined markedly in market-age broilers of the same strain fed similar diets and maintained on litter in the same broiler house.

The effect of feed deprivation on behaviour of egg-layers in different environments

The effect of 48-h feed withdrawal on behaviour and egg-production was investigated in 2 flocks of White Leghorns housed on deep litter and on a sloped wire floor, respectively. Each flock consisted of 117 birds, and the density was 7 birds mmz. When the hens were 10 months old, the food was withdrawn for 48 h. Behaviour patterns were registered 2 days prior to, during and 2 days after, withdrawal of feed. The registration of behaviour was performed by a closed circuit television camera and viewer with video-tape recording. The registration included counting the number of hens in a standard area, the number of feeding and floor-pecking hens and the number of aggressive pecks and threats. The egg-production was recorded by collection and counting of eggs twice a day in 2 seven-day periods prior to feed withdrawal and in 4 seven-day periods after withdrawal. Data were analyzed by Student’s t-test. The feed withdrawal had no significant effect on numbers of hens on litter in the standard area. The number of hens on wire in the standard area decreased during feed withdrawal and increased subsequent to withdrawal as compared to the period prior to withdrawal. The feeding activity almost ceased in both groups of hens in the withdrawal period, whereas the floor-pecking activity increased in this period. For all of the 3 periods, the hens on litter had high floor-pecking activity as compared to those on wire. The agonistic behaviour as expressed by aggressive pecks decreased in both groups of animals in the withdrawal period. Aggressive pecking was more pronounced in the hens on wire prior to feed withdrawal as compared to those on litter. No difference between groups was observed during and after feed withdrawal. The aggressive pecking of the hens on wire was significantly lower in the period after as compared to the period prior to feed withdrawal. The threatening activity showed a similar pattern. Egg-production in both groups of hens decreased subsequent to feed withdrawal, with the lowest production during the first week after withdrawal. In this week, the production for hens on wire was significantly lower than the production for hens on litter. For both groups, the production in the third and fourth week subsequent to feed withdrawal was about 90% of the production prior to withdrawal YOUNG DOMESTIC CHICKS AVOID EYE-LIKE SHAPES R.B. JONES A.R.C. Poultry Research Centre, West Mains Road, Edinburgh (Gt. Britain)

Erysipelas in poultry. Prevalence of serotypes and epidemiological investigations

Eight different serotypes of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae were isolated from 39 outbreaks of erysipelas in poultry, serotypes 1, 5, 6 and 9 being most prevalent. More than one serotype was demonstrated in five outbreaks. Only White Leghorns were affected as far as erysipelas in chickens is concerned, and 94% of the flocks were kept on sloping wire floors of the Pennsylvania system. No relationship between serotype, host predilection and virulence was observed, nor was there a seasonal distribution. The epidemiological and preventive aspects of the present findings are discussed.

Measures of aggression in the domestic hen — An evaluation of methods

From a study comparing the effects of two stocking densities, and of wire floor versus deep litter, it was concluded that: (1) high density (714 cm*/bird versus 1427 cm*/ bird) reduced the number of threats; (2) wire floor reduced the number of fights; (3) wire floor and high density both seemed to give a slight increase in aggressive pecking. Thus the environmental parameters affected the agonistic elements differently. A literature review gives some support to these findings. In all studies there were fewer fights on wire mesh and, with one exception, threats were reduced when density increased. Aggressive pecking increased with density until, at approx. 800 cm*/bird, it sharply declined. From then on, however, fear increased with density. The conflicting results often found may have several causes. (1) Most studies have been concerned with birds in cages versus litter pens, which means a simultaneous change in density, type of floor, etc. (2) Further, the commonly performed pooling together as “total agonistic encounters”, etc., of elements which react differently to the same environmental parameter also makes interpretation difficult. (3) Finally, differences in definition of the elements may influence the results. In future studies these points should be taken into consideration. The changes in the behaviour of the domestic hen when going from deep litter to cages and from low density to high density were compared with the behaviour generally found during an approach-avoidance conflict. Even though we should be careful when comparing such different situations, it appears that the behavioural changes shown by the domestic hen as density increases are generally similar to those commonly found when an animal moves closer to an aversive stimulus during conflict.

Effect of Feed Withdrawal on Behaviour and Egg production in White Leghorns on Litter and Wire

The effect of 48-h feed withdrawal on behaviour and egg production was investigated in White Leghorns housed on deep litter and sloped wire floor respectively. After the withdrawal period the wire animals crowded in the food trough area. During the withdrawal period both groups of hens showed a significant increase in floor pecking activity. The agonistic behaviour expressed as the number of aggressive pecks and the number of threats per 30 min was significantly more pronounced in the hens on wire before feed withdrawal whereas no difference between groups was encountered during and subsequent to feed withdrawal. Both groups showed a decrease in aggression during the withdrawal period. Egg production decreased significantly in both groups of hens subsequent to feed withdrawal with the lowest production by those on wire.

Leg Bone Abnormalities and Histopathology of Caged and Floor Reared Broilers Fed Diets Devoid of Selected Vitamins and Minerals

Summers et al., 1978, described an experiment in which performance and leg conditions of birds fed diets devoid of synthetic biotin, choline, folic acid, manganese, and niacin were observed and recorded. This is a report on birds from the same experiment. Dyschondroplasia of the tibia was documented and the distal end of each tibia examined histologically. Metatarsal length and condyle depth of the distal tibia were also determined. Metatarsal length was influenced by vitamin deficiencies as well as the type of floor on which birds were raised. The depth of the intercondyle space was affected more by a manganese deficiency than by vitamin deficiencies and, in this case, was greater on plastic and litter as opposed to wire floors. There did not appear to be a correlation between the space depth and slipping of the tendons; however, a large number of birds should be examined to provide more data. Dyschondroplasia was more prevalent in choline deficient birds, particularly those birds raised on litter or plastic floors. Histology changes in relation to nutrient deficiencies were comparable to those reported previously.

Welfare and the Structure of a Battery Cage : Size and Cage Floor Preferences in Domestic Hens

SUMMARY Preference tests are an important tool in animal welfare in that they enable various aspects of the environment in which the animal is kept to be assessed from the animal’s point of view. Hens were found to prefer a larger over a smaller cage, and a cage with a grass floor over one with a wire floor. When cage size and floor type were opposed, hens chose to enter a small cage with a grass floor rather than a larger one with a wire floor. These results applied to both battery-kept hens and those which had been living outside in a hen-run.

Response of Young Chickens and Turkeys to Virulent and Avirulent Pasteurella multocida Administered by Various Routes

Groups of 20 young chickens and turkeys obtained from commercial flocks and placed in pens with pine shavings over concrete floors or from the hatchery and grown on wire, were exposed to avirulent Pasteurella multocida serotype 3,4 cross or virulent P. multocida serotype 3 by drinking water, ocular, subcutaneous, intracutaneous, or palatine cleft routes. A secondary exposure to virulent P. multocida serotype 1 by the palatine cleft route was given 14 days later, except that birds exposed by palatine cleft on the initial exposure were reexposed by drinking water. There was a group of each species for each floor type and each exposure route except palatine cleft, which was performed on litter only. Chickens were more resistant to initial exposure to virulent P. multocida by all routes than turkeys. Chickens showed much less resistance to subsequent exposure to P. multocida serotype 1 than turkeys after exposure to the avirulent organism by the drinking-water route. Avirulent P. multocida administered to chickens or turkeys by subcutaneous or intracutaneous routes and turkeys by drinking water route produced a high degree of resistance to subsequent exposure to P. multocida serotype 1. In a second experiment it was found that wire floors caused many more breast blisters than pine shavings on Pasteurella-exposed or unexposed chickens.

Protein Requirement of Guinea Keets

An experiment was carried out in batteries with raised wire floors to study the protein requirements of guinea keets from one to 56 days of age. Keets were fed protein levels ranging from 18 to 28% using an isocaloric corn-soya diet. Keets in this experiment required a dietary protein level of 24% for optimal growth to eight weeks of age. Feed conversion was slightly better for the keets that received 28% protein; however, this result was not significantly different at the 0.05 level of probability. Feed consumption was generally related to growth rate. Mortality was not influenced by levels of protein.

Behavioral effects of lesions in the A10 dopaminergic area of the rat

Experiments have been carried out with 150 rats in order to study some psychophysiological functions of the mesencephalocortico limbic dopaminergic A10 group. Lesions in the A10 area were made by using 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) local injections; 2 small volumes of injections were used at the same concentration (2 μg/ 1 μ1 or 1 μg/0.5 μ1). In a first experiment the effects of these two injections were tested on locomotor activity measured in a circular corridor, 10 and 30 days after surgery. Injections provoked hyperactivity, mainly during nocturnal basal activity periods, but not during initial exploratory activity periods. The larger the injection, the more important the hyperactivity was. The larger injections induced important food spillage evidenced through the wire floor of the home cage and perturbation in a passive avoidance learning. There was no change in body weight or in amount of ingested food. In a second experiment, the effects of local injection of 6-OHDA in the other CA structures of bundles situated in or near the ventral tegmental area were tested. Injections in the substantia nigra compacta, in the noradrenergic ventral bundle, in the dorsal periventricular system-tegmental radiations did not provoke locomotor hyperactivity. In a third experiment, a possible role of the median raphe (MR) nucleus in the A10-lesion induced hyperactivity was tested: first, radiofrequency MR lesions were made and no durable significant hyperactivity was recorded; secondly, 6-OHDA (1 μg/0.5 μ1) was injected into the A10 area and activity was measured 10 days later: these injections provoked significant hyperactivity during the nocturnal basal and the diurnal basal activity periods. It might be concluded that neither the neighbor CA fibers nor the MR were directly involved in the ventral tegmental — 6-OHDA lesions syndrome. Anatomical controls by using the Fink-Heimer silver impregnating method have demonstrated, first, that the 6-OHDA injections did not destroy fibers other than catecholaminergic and secondly, that the degenerations are found in the forebrain and cortical limbic A10 projections. Hypotheses are made about a possible general inhibitory role of the A10 in behavior, in the sense of selective and attentive arousal processes, often impaired in some mental illnesses.