Flammulina Velutipes Research Articles

Exploration of the Functional Constituents of the Substrate of Flammulina velutipes

After harvesting, the substrate of Flammulina velutipes (SFV) is repurposed for uses such as feed, fuel, and culture medium. This study identified four phenolic acids and one flavonoid from the SFV for the first time using solvent extraction and chromatography: ferulic acid (1), ρ-coumaric acid (2), vanillic acid (3), 3-methoxygallic acid (4), and tricin (5). They showed significant activity in the DPPH scavenging test with concentrations determined by HPLC as follows: ferulic acid (218.88 mg/kg), ρ-coumaric acid (157.31 mg/kg), vanillic acid (281.54 mg/kg), 3-methoxygallic acid (33.85 mg/kg), and tricin (713.42 mg/kg). These findings indicate that the SFV is a valuable source of bioactive compounds for medicinal and health-promoting applications.

Comprehensive evaluation of Flammulina velutipes residues polysaccharide based on in vitro digestion and human fecal fermentation

Flammulina velutipes residues (FVR) are the waste culture medium derived from the collection of Flammulina velutipes fruiting bodies, with an annual output that remains largely unexplored. The characteristics of digestion and fermentation of Flammulina velutipes residues polysaccharide (FVRP) are still relatively unknown. This study investigated the structure of the gut microbiota through 16 s rDNA gene sequencing and analyzed changes in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) content via targeted metabolome analysis. The aim was to explore the prebiotic activity of FVRP based on a simulated digestion model combined with an in vitro anaerobic fermentation model. The results demonstrated that FVRP did not exhibit significant changes during in vitro digestion and fermentation but did enhance antioxidant activity. Furthermore, FVRP was found to rapidly reduce the pH value and increase SCFA production in the fermentation broth from lactic acid bacteria and human feces. Notably, FVRP altered the gut microbiota structure, significantly increasing the relative abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidota. Thus, FVRP could be considered a promising prebiotic food and feed additive that promotes the generation of short-chain fatty acids by modulating gut microbiota.

Effect of modifications on structure, physicochemical properties and lead ions adsorption behavior of dietary fiber of Flammulina velutipes

The health effects of dietary fiber have been widely concerned, which are closely related to physicochemical properties. This study focused on soluble dietary fiber of Flammulina velutipes (FDF), evaluated the effects of modifications on structural characterization, the physicochemical properties and the heavy metal adsorption characteristics, and further clarified underlying mechanisms on Pb2+ adsorption behavior of FDFs. The results showed the modifications of extrusion and cellulase improved the yield of FDFs, increased the release of active groups and enhanced the adsorption ability in vitro. Besides, Pb2+ adsorption altered porous structure and led to the presence of carboxylate. It was a spontaneous endothermic reaction and can be fitted by the pseudo-second-order kinetic equation. The Freundlich equation was suitable to describe the adsorption isotherm. These results highlighted potential applications of the dietary fiber modification and laid the theoretical foundation for the modification processing of F. velutipes and protection from food-derived heavy metal toxicity.

Structural characterization, antioxidant activity, and fermentation characteristics of Flammulina velutipes residue polysaccharide degraded by ultrasonic assisted H2O2-Vc technique

Adhere to the concept of low-carbon environmental protection and turning waste into treasure, polysaccharides from Flammulina velutipes residue polysaccharide (FVRP) has been developed and possesses diverse bioactivities, comprising antioxidant, hypoglycemic, and relieving heavy metal damage, which still has the disadvantages of high molecular weight and low bioavailability. The current work is the first to prepare a degraded polysaccharide (FVRPV) from FVRP by ultrasonic assisted H2O2-Vc technique in order to reduce its molecular weight, thereby improving its activity and bioavailability. Our results found that the molecular weight and average particle size were declined, but the monosaccharide composition and characteristic functional group types of FVRPV had no impact. The structural changes of polysaccharides analyzed by XRD, Congo Red test, I2-KI, SEM, and methylation analysis indicated that the surface morphology and glycosidic bond composition of FVRPV possessed longer side chains and a greater number of branches with an amorphous crystal structure devoid of a triple helix configuration, and had experienced notable alterations after ultrasonic assisted H2O2-Vc treatment. Meanwhile, the in vitro antioxidant capacity of FVRPV had significantly increased compared to FVRP, implying ultrasonic assisted H2O2-Vc technique maybe a effective method to enhance the bioactivity of polysaccharides. In addition, the content of polysaccharide, reducing sugar, and uronic acid in FVRPV was significantly decreased, but antioxidant capacity of fermentation broth was stronger by in vitro human fecal fermentation. The 16S rDNA sequencing data displayed that FVRPV can enrich probiotics and reduce the abundance of pathogenic bacteria through different metabolic pathways mediated by gut microbiota, thereby exerting its potential probiotic effects. The interesting work provides a novel degraded polysaccharide by ultrasonic assisted H2O2-Vc technique, laying a foundation for developing FVRPV as a new antioxidant and prebiotic.

Rapid Risk Assessment of the Detection of Listeria Monocytogenes in Enoki Mushrooms

This rapid assessment has been requested to inform a decision by FSA Policy whether a temporary overarching risk management response to the commodity (enoki mushrooms) is necessary. Cultivated enoki mushrooms are deprived of light and grown in a CO2-rich environment. Commercially grown enoki mushrooms are grown in hard wood sawdust that is impregnated with the spores. The sawdust is usually good for four or five crops of mushrooms. The mushrooms are encouraged to grow long and thin by placing glass tubes over them. This produces a pale white mushroom with long, slender stems, up to five inches in length, and small caps. Whilst specific practices may vary, generally the initial growing environment is humid with a temperature between 22°C – 25°C, followed by lowering the temperature to 7°C – 12°C whilst maintaining humidity. It is this change in temperature that causes the mycelium to form fruiting bodies that grow into mature mushrooms which are harvested after about 90 days (Pereira et al., 2023). The species Flammulina filiformis, known and sold in different regions as “enoki”/“enokitake” Japan, “jingu” (China), “futu” (India), “paengi beoseot” (Korea), “nám kim cham” (Vietnam) also grows wild throughout a broad natural range on the rotting wood of a range of common trees, although wild-growing mushrooms appear quite different. The majority of enoki mushrooms on sale appear to be commercially cultivated and fresh rather than wild mushrooms. It is unknown if wild enoki mushrooms present a similar L. monocytogenes risk to cultivated mushrooms. Listeria spp., including L. monocytogenes, can be present in the soil (Linke et al., 2014), and are common in natural and urban environments (Orsi and Wiedmann, 2016). Contamination and proliferation is possible during cultivation but also during harvesting and packing (uncertainty).

Effects of Flammulina velutipes powder on the emulsion properties of chicken myofibrillar protein under low-salt conditions.

This study aimed to investigate the influence of varying concentrations of Flammulina velutipes powder (FVP) (0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 g L-1, based on FVP weight per liter of emulsion) on the stability, rheological properties, microstructure, and interfacial protein content of chicken myofibrillar protein (MP) emulsions under low-salt conditions. Visual assessment and the Turbiscan stability index revealed that the stability of MP emulsions improved with increasing FVP concentration. The greatest stability was achieved when the FVP concentration was 16 gL-1. The incorporation of FVP enhanced the elasticity and viscosity of the emulsions by forming a dense three-dimensional network structure. The droplet size of the emulsions initially decreased and then increased with increasing FVP concentration. The addition of FVP increased the amount of protein absorbed by the emulsion layer. Flammulina velutipes powder is promising as a stabilizer that could improve the emulsifying and functional properties of low-salt myofibrillar protein emulsions. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Genome Sequencing of Three Pathogenic Fungi Provides Insights into the Evolution and Pathogenic Mechanisms of the Cobweb Disease on Cultivated Mushrooms.

Fungal diseases not only reduce the yield of edible mushrooms but also pose potential threats to the preservation and quality of harvested mushrooms. Cobweb disease, caused primarily by fungal pathogens from the Hypocreaceae family, is one of the most significant diseases affecting edible mushrooms. Deciphering the genomes of these pathogens will help unravel the molecular basis of their evolution and identify genes responsible for pathogenicity. Here, we present high-quality genome sequences of three cobweb disease fungi: Hypomyces aurantius Cb-Fv, Cladobotryum mycophilum CB-Ab, and Cladobotryum protrusum CB-Mi, isolated from Flammulina velutipes, Agaricus bisporus, and Morchella importuna, respectively. The assembled genomes of H. aurantius, C. mycophilum, and C. protrusum are 33.19 Mb, 39.83 Mb, and 38.10 Mb, respectively. This is the first report of the genome of H. aurantius. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that cobweb disease pathogens are closely related and diverged approximately 17.51 million years ago. CAZymes (mainly chitinases, glucan endo-1,3-beta-glucosidases, and secondary metabolite synthases), proteases, KP3 killer proteins, lipases, and hydrophobins were found to be conserved and strongly associated with pathogenicity, virulence, and adaptation in the three cobweb pathogens. This study provides insights into the genome structure, genome organization, and pathogenicity of these three cobweb disease fungi, which will be a valuable resource for comparative genomics studies of cobweb pathogens and will help control this disease, thereby enhancing mushroom quality.

Comparative growth kinetics of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica on dehydrated enoki and wood ear mushrooms during rehydration and storage.

Specialty mushrooms have been implicated in foodborne illness outbreaks in the U.S. in recent years. These mushrooms are available to consumers in both their fresh and dried states. Dehydrating mushrooms is a convenient way to increase shelf life. The dehydration process results in a lowered water activity (aw) of the commodity, creating an environment where both spoilage and pathogenic bacteria cannot proliferate. Prior to food preparation and consumption, these mushrooms are typically rehydrated and possibly stored for later use which could lead to increased levels of pathogens. This study examined the survival and growth of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica on dehydrated enoki and wood ear mushrooms during rehydration and subsequent storage. Mushrooms were heat dehydrated, inoculated at 3 log CFU/g, and rehydrated at either 5 or 25°C for 2 h. Rehydrated mushrooms were stored at 5, 10, or 25°C for up to 14 d. L. monocytogenes and S. enterica survived on enoki and wood ear mushroom types during rehydration at 5 and 25°C, with populations often <2.39 log CFU/g. During subsequent storage, no growth was observed on wood ear mushrooms, regardless of the rehydration or storage temperature, with populations remaining <2.39 log CFU/g for both pathogens. When stored at 5°C, no growth was observed for either pathogen on enoki mushrooms. During storage at 10 and 25°C, pathogen growth rates and populations after 14 d were generally significantly higher on the enoki mushrooms rehydrated at 25°C; the highest growth rate (3.56 ± 0.75 log CFU/g/d) and population (9.48 ± 0.62 log CFU/g) after 14 d for either pathogen was observed by S. enterica at 25°C storage temperature. Results indicate a marked difference in pathogen survival and proliferation on the two specialty mushrooms examined in this study and highlight the need for individual product assessments. Data can be used to assist in informing guidelines for time and temperature control for the safety of rehydrated mushrooms.

Natural Polysaccharides Derived from Fruits and Mushrooms with Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects

: A large class of substances known as polysaccharides have a wide range of advantageous therapeutic and nutritional properties. Polysaccharides found in plants and plant components are extracted for the use in treating a number of diseases. Since ancient times, these polysaccharides have been utilized for human wellness. With no or minimal adverse effects, the polysaccharides that were extracted and refined from the fruits exhibit strong antioxidant, antiinflammatory, immunoregulatory, and hepatoprotective action. These fruit polysaccharides are isolated and purified using numerous chromatographic methods. In this review, the polysaccharide obtained from sources such as Rubus chingii, Mulberry, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Lilium davidii, Flammulina velutipes, Angelica sinesis, and Diospyros kaki have been discussed along with their biological activities including DPPH radical scavenging activity, ABTS free radical scavenging assay, Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity and assay for oxygen free radical absorption capacity (ORAC) listed in various studies.

골판지 포장지의 알루미늄 코팅이 팽이버섯의 저온저장 중 품질 특성에 미치는 영향

We examined the physicochemical properties and microbial safety of Enoki mushrooms during storage at 5°C for 9 weeks, with different packaging containers that are corrugated, Al-coated, and without packaging (control). The weight change of Enoki mushrooms in the different containers due to moisture loss was 1.9%, 0.9%, 0.6% for control, corrugated, and Al-coated packaging, respectively. The degree of browning rapidly increased as the storage period increased in the control sample. However, corrugated and Al-coated packaging suppressed the browning degree. The changes of color L-, a-, and b-vlaues were minimal changes in Al-coated packaging. There was no significant difference in the total amino acids, polyphenol oxidase, and peroxidase in corrugated packaging and Al-coated packaging, regardless of the storage period. The microbial growth such as total aerobic bacteria, yeast, and mold of Enoki mushroom during the storage period, were significantly suppressed in Al-coated packaging samples as compared to the control and corrugated packaging. In conclusion, Al-coated packaging has beneficial effects such as preventing moisture loss, maintaining browning degree, inhibiting oxidative enzyme reaction, and ensuring microbial safety of Enoki mushrooms during the storage period. Al-coated packaging is considered effective for extending the shelf-life and improving the storage and distribution of mushrooms.

골판지 포장지의 알루미늄 코팅이 팽이버섯의 저온저장 중 품질 특성에 미치는 영향

We examined the physicochemical properties and microbial safety of Enoki mushrooms during storage at 5°C for 9 weeks, with different packaging containers that are corrugated, Al-coated, and without packaging (control). The weight change of Enoki mushrooms in the different containers due to moisture loss was 1.9%, 0.9%, 0.6% for control, corrugated, and Al-coated packaging, respectively. The degree of browning rapidly increased as the storage period increased in the control sample. However, corrugated and Al-coated packaging suppressed the browning degree. The changes of color L-, a-, and b-vlaues were minimal changes in Al-coated packaging. There was no significant difference in the total amino acids, polyphenol oxidase, and peroxidase in corrugated packaging and Al-coated packaging, regardless of the storage period. The microbial growth such as total aerobic bacteria, yeast, and mold of Enoki mushroom during the storage period, were significantly suppressed in Al-coated packaging samples as compared to the control and corrugated packaging. In conclusion, Al-coated packaging has beneficial effects such as preventing moisture loss, maintaining browning degree, inhibiting oxidative enzyme reaction, and ensuring microbial safety of Enoki mushrooms during the storage period. Al-coated packaging is considered effective for extending the shelf-life and improving the storage and distribution of mushrooms.

Lipidomic Profiling of Flammulina velutipes (Curtis) Singer (Agaricomycetes) through Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry: Examining Lipid Dynamics Changes during Fruiting Body Formation and Development.

Flammulina velutipes (enokitake) is widely recognized for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Understanding the biochemical processes, such as lipid metabolism during fruiting body formation, is essential for enhancing mushroom cultivation and utilization. This study aimed at elucidating the dynamic lipidomic changes during seven growth stages of F. velutipes using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Our results revealed significant increases in ceramides along with the growth and a sharp decline in phosphatidylinositols from mycelial to primordial stages. Fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acids, recently discovered for their bioactivities, showed high intensities in the mycelial and primordial stages but decreased rapidly thereafter. These findings provide profound insights into the lipid profiles associated with mushroom morphology and development. This lipidomics study establishes a foundational understanding for future research in agricultural and food chemistry applications, potentially improving industrial production and quality control of F. velutipes.

Effect of Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide on mitochondrial apoptosis in lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells

FVP is a polysaccharide extracted from Flammulina velutipes with immunomodulatory, anti-tumor, and anti-oxidation activities. In this study, we obtained the crude polysaccharide FVP-C from the water extract of Flammulina velutipes, and its main component FVP-S1 was obtained after further purification. Upon structural identification, we found that FVP-C is a neutral polysaccharide, and FVP-S1 was an acidic golden mushroom polysaccharide, consisting of glucuronic acid, xylose, and glucose. Lung adenocarcinoma (A549) was treated with FVP-S1 and FVP-C, respectively, and we found that FVP-S1 and FVP-C inhibited the proliferation and migration ability of tumor cells, as well as changed the morphology of the tumor cells and caused chromosome sheteropythosis, among which FVP-S1 had the best inhibition effect. The results of flow cytometry experiments and mitochondrial membrane potential, RT-qPCR, and Western blot showed that FVP-S1 and FVP-C were able to decrease the mitochondrial membrane potential, increase the expression level of apoptotic proteins Casepase-3 and Casepase-9 proteins, and at the same time, increase the ratio of Bax and Bcl-2, which promoted apoptosis of tumor cells. In conclusion, these data indicated that FVP-S1 and FVP-C were able to induce apoptosis in A549 cells through the mitochondrial pathway, which played an important role in inhibiting tumor cells.

Extraction of Chitosan Derived from Mushroom by Deacetylation for Wastewater Treatment

In this study, Volvariella vovacea (straw mushroom, SM) and Flammulina velutipes (Golden mushroom, GM) were used as a natural source of chitin. The aim of this research is to extract chitin and thus, converted into chitosan via acetylation process. The obtained chitosan was applied in the wastewater treatment process as the coagulant to improve the quality of wastewater. As these two types of mushrooms are readily available in the local area in Northeastern Thailand and relatively cheap. The chitin extraction process was obtained by firstly removing fat, minerals, protein and pigment of SM and GM using petroleum ether, HCl, NaOH and acetone respectively. Extracted chitin was deacetylated by using 50% (v/v) NaOH at 140 oC for 2 hours to convert into chitosan. The properties of extracted chitosan was examined by FT-IR and TGA. FTIR spectrum showed the peaks of C-H stretching at 2870 cm-1 , N-H2 bending at 1586 cm-1, N-H stretching at 1026 cm-1, etc. which corresponded to the standard chitosan. TGA showed the thermal decomposition which is divided into three phases. First stage of weight loss is between 50-115 °C caused by water evaporation. There was no changes of weight during a temperature of 115-268 °C. The second phase during 268-330 °C indicates a significant weight loss which is due tot he saccharide degradation of chitosan and at a temperature more than 330°C refers to the volatile organic material. As a result of TGA, it can be confirmed that the extracted chitosan from SM and GM is very similar to the standard commercial chitosan. After that, 3 g of extracted chitosan was mixed with 300 mL of deionized water and 6 mL of acetic acid was added for 24 hours to prepare the chitosan coagulant. Then, it was dropped in the separate jar which contained high TSS, COD and BOD wastewater. The results showed that chitosan biocoagulant could reduce TSS, COD and BOD by 62, 62 and 88% respectively which proved to be efficient in the use of wastewater treatment.

Green ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction of polysaccharides from Flammulina velutipes residues by response surface methodology

Flammulina velutipes residues, the by-products of Flammulina velutipes industry, cause environmental pollution. The aim of the current work was to evaluate the extraction efficiency of polysaccharides from Flammulina velutipes residues by an ultrasonic assisted snailase enzymatic extraction (UAEE) method, following the principles of green chemistry, mainly solvent and energy saving. The optimized parameters obtained by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) were determined as follows: ultrasonic power at 150 W, extraction time of 90 min, and extraction temperature of 55 °C. The experimental extraction yield (109.54 ± 5.44 mg/g) was closely matched the predicted yield (110.92 mg/g). Polysaccharides from Flammulina velutipes residues (UE-FVRP) had the molecular weight of 170 kDa and a composition comprising 8 monosaccharides, primarily xylose (Xyl, 24.71%), mannose (Man, 17.29%), arabinose (Ara, 11.48%), and galactose (Gal, 15.63%). FT-IR analysis suggested that UE-FVRP likely contained pyranose with α-glycoside bonds. In vitro antioxidant activity assays revealed that UE-FVRP displayed potent DPPH radical scavenging activity and reducing ability. Additionally, UE-FVRP demonstrated the ability to promote the growth of two Lactobacillus strains, indicating its potential as a novel polysaccharide with high in vitro prebiotic properties. Therefore, these findings proposed a novel, green, and efficient extraction method for extracting polysaccharides from Flammulina velutipes residues, highlighting the potential of utilizing Flammulina velutipes residues as a valuable ingredient in both food and feed applications, contributing to the sustainable reuse of agricultural by-products.

Discarded enoki mushroom root-derived multifunctional chrome-free chitosan-based tanning agent for eco-leathers manufacturing: Tanning-dyeing, non-acid soaking, and non-basifying

The aim of this study was to develop new discarded enoki mushroom root-derived multifunctional chrome-free chitosan-based tanning agents that can be used for eco-leather manufacturing. In this study, oligochitosan (OCS) was prepared from chitosan extracted from the enoki mushrooms and chemically modified using reactive dye R19 and epichlorohydrin (ECH) to prepare chromium-free tanning agent (OCS-R19-ECH) with both tanning and dyeing functions. FT-IR, XRD, and NMR (1H) confirmed the successful synthesis of the product. The molecular weight of OCS-R19-ECH is 6355 g/mol, with an average particle size of 1249.37 nm and an epoxy value of 0.276 mol/100 g. OCS-R19-ECH was used for tanning experiments on bated sheepskin, and the results showed that the leather tanned with OCS-R19-ECH not only exhibited excellent wet-heat stability (shrinkage temperature = 81 °C), but also superior dyeing uniformity, resistance to dry and wet abrasion, mechanical strength (tensile strength = 12.4 MPa, tear strength = 57.3 N/mm), and outstanding antimicrobial properties. Most importantly, compared with traditional tanning agents, OCS-R19-ECH has a higher pH (9.0), tanning-dyeing integration, non-acid soaking, and non-basifying can be achieved in leather making, which can greatly simplify the tanning processes. This new multifunctional chrome-free chitosan-based tanning agent facilitates high-value utilization of waste resources.

Klasifikasi Jenis Jamur Edible Menggunakan Convolutional Neural Network: Studi Kasus pada Jamur Tiram, Enoki, dan Truffle

This study uses a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to develop a mushroom type classification model that can differentiate between truffles, enoki and oyster mushrooms very accurately. The dataset consisting of mushroom images is collected from various sources and processed through data augmentation techniques such as rotation, zoom, flip, and shifting to improve model generalization. For final classification, the CNN model used consists of several convolution and pooling layers, followed by a dense layer. The study results show that this model has a validation accuracy of 79.31% after twenty training epochs. Although there were some misclassifications between oyster and enoki mushrooms, data augmentation techniques were shown to improve model performance. This research shows that CNN can be used effectively to classify various types of fungi. This also shows that CNN has many potential applications in the agricultural and food industries. Increasing datasets, studying more complex model architectures, and using advanced data augmentation methods such as Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) are some suggestions for further research.

STUDI PENDAHULUAN REKAYASA REMATURASI IKAN NILA (Oreohcromis niloticus) DENGAN PENAMBAHAN TELUR BEBEK (Anas domesticus) DAN TAUGE (Flammulina velutipes) DALAM PAKAN KOMERSIL

Spawning is a stage carried out to support the availability of tilapia seeds. After being spawned, the broodstock requires a process of maturation of the gonads again (rematuration). The rematuration stage is very important to pay attention to because it greatly influences the success of spawning as well as the quantity and quality of the larvae produced. This preliminary study aims to find out and examine the use of duck eggs (Anas domesticus) and bean sprouts (Flammulina velutipes) in feed to improve the quality of rematuration in tilapia. The method used in this preliminary study is an exploratory descriptive method. The test fish used were female tilapia fish that were 11 months old, started to be spawned on June 5 2023 and were recorded as having been spawned 7 times with an average weight of 200 grams. Broodstock selection will be carried out after spawning is complete. This selection aims to ensure that the fish are in healthy condition and ready for rematuration. The feed used was floating feed manufactured by CPP with 29% protein. Apart from using manufactured feed in this research, duck eggs were also added at 12% and bean sprouts at 25% of the feed weight per day. Feeding is done twice a day, namely morning and evening with a FR of 5% of biomass. The research results showed that the HSI value of tilapia showed development during the rematuration period, getting an HSI value of 2.53% and a GSI value of 3.15%

A successful cultivation of Flammulina elastica, distantly related to the widely cultivated species F. filiformis

ABSTRACT Flammulina elastica is a white-rot basidiomycete fungus sheltered in the Northern Hemisphere. Although F. filiformis, popularly known as the enoki mushroom, is widely cultivated, few attempts have been made to produce F. elastica in South Asia. In this study, we examined the relationships between the taxa of Flammulina based on the ribosomal Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence and taxonomic characteristics. The morphological studies and ITS-based molecular results confirm the species as F. elastica. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that F. elastica belongs to a distinct clade. The species showed a large cap size and thick pileus with high fruit body weight. The lamellae of F. elastica are adnate, whitish to yellowish brown. The present study successfully standardised the cultivation technology of F. elastica under controlled growth conditions, with 18.6% biological efficiency on wheat straw-based substrate. The fruit bodies comprise 51.4% total carbohydrates and 24.5% protein on a dry weight basis. Higher β-glucan (47.3% w/w) was also reported in the fruit body, with considerable antioxidant activity. Moreover, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) studies revealed the presence of higher functional groups compared to F. filiformis. The experimental findings will popularise the cultivation of this mushroom in South Asian countries and temperate regions of India.

Extraction of chitin from flammulina velutipes waste: A low-concentration acid pretreatment and aspergillus Niger fermentation approach

In recent years, with the booming of the edible mushroom industry, chitin production has become increasingly dependent on fungi and other non-traditional sources. Fungal chitin has advantages including superior performance, simpler separation processes, abundant raw materials, and the absence of shellfish allergens. As a kind of edible mushroom, flammulina velutipes (F. velutipes) also has the advantages of wide source and large annual yield. This provided the possibility for the extraction of chitin. Here, a procedure to extract chitin from F. velutipes waste be presented. This method comprises low-concentration acid pretreatment coupled with consolidated bioprocessing with Aspergillus niger. Characterization by SEM, FTIR, XRD, NMR, and TGA confirmed that the extracted chitin was β-chitin. To achieve optimal fermentation of F. velutipes waste (80 g/L), ammonium sulfate and glucose were selected as nitrogen and carbon sources (5 g/L), with a fermentation time of 5 days. The extracted chitin could be further deacetylated and purified to obtain high-purity chitosan (99.2 % ± 1.07 %). This chitosan exhibited a wide degree of deacetylation (50.0 % ± 1.33 % – 92.1 % ± 0.97 %) and a molecular weight distribution of 92–192 kDa. Notably, the yield of chitosan extracted in this study was increased by 56.3 % ± 0.47 % compared to the traditional chemical extraction method.