Wing Apparatus Research Articles

Design and Integration of a Flapping Wing Apparatus

Abstract In this paper, we presented the design, integration, and experimental verification of a flapping wing apparatus. The purpose for this apparatus is to provide a framework to study the applicability of various types of sensors on flapping wings in the presence of forward speed. This work is inspired by the discoveries of mechanosensory hairs on insect wings that perform like strain-gauge sensors. To design the apparatus, we started by kinematic analysis of a crank-slider mechanism to actuate the wings. After that, we constructed the equations of motion of the entire system to find the proper gear ratio, motor properties, and other geometric dimensions. For the aerodynamic modeling, we used a quasi-steady formulation and presented a closed-form solution for the aerodynamic torque. Then, we explained the integration process and manufacturing of the main parts and presented two prototypes for the apparatus. At the end, we showed the final constructed versions of the apparatus and presented the experimental response and compared them with the simulation.

Incremental Nonlinear Control for Aeroelastic Wing Load Alleviation and Flutter Suppression

This paper proposes an incremental nonlinear control method for an aeroelastic system’s gust load alleviation and active flutter suppression. These two control objectives can be achieved without modifying the control architecture or the control parameters. The proposed method has guaranteed stability in the Lyapunov sense and also has robustness against external disturbances and model mismatches. The effectiveness of this control method is validated by wind tunnel tests of an active aeroelastic parametric wing apparatus, which is a typical wing section containing heave, pitch, flap, and spoiler degrees of freedom. Wind tunnel experiment results show that the proposed nonlinear incremental control can reduce the maximum gust loads by up to 46.7% and the root mean square of gust loads by up to 72.9%, while expanding the flutter margin by up to 15.9%.

3D atlas of tinamou (Neornithes: Tinamidae) pectoral morphology: Implications for reconstructing the ancestral neornithine flight apparatus.

Palaeognathae, the extant avian clade comprising the flightless ratites and flight-capable tinamous (Tinamidae), is the sister group to all other living birds, and recent phylogenetic studies illustrate that tinamous are phylogenetically nested within a paraphyletic assemblage of ratites. As the only extant palaeognaths that have retained the ability to fly, tinamous may provide key information on the nature of the flight apparatus of ancestral crown palaeognaths-and, in turn, crown birds-as well as insight into convergent modifications to the wing apparatus among extant ratite lineages. To reveal new information about the musculoskeletal anatomy of tinamous and facilitate development of computational biomechanical models of tinamou wing function, we generated a three-dimensional musculoskeletal model of the flight apparatus of the extant Andean tinamou (Nothoprocta pentlandii) using diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography (diceCT). Origins and insertions of the pectoral flight musculature of N. pentlandii are generally consistent with those of other extant volant birds specialized for burst flight, and the entire suite of presumed ancestral neornithine flight muscles are present in N. pentlandii with the exception of the biceps slip. The pectoralis and supracoracoideus muscles are robust, similar to the condition in other extant burst-flying birds such as many extant Galliformes. Contrary to the condition in most extant Neognathae (the sister clade to Palaeognathae), the insertion of the pronator superficialis has a greater distal extent than the pronator profundus, although most other anatomical observations are broadly consistent with the conditions observed in extant neognaths. This work will help form a basis for future comparative studies of the avian musculoskeletal system, with implications for reconstructing the flight apparatus of ancestral crown birds and clarifying musculoskeletal modifications underlying the convergent origins of ratite flightlessness.

Ecomorphological variation of the penguin wing.

Penguins (Aves, Sphenisciformes) are pursuit divers that feed mainly on krill, fish, and squid. Although they are opportunistic feeders, some species are more generalists than others and many show dietary preferences towardkrill and other crustaceans or fish and squid. Their diving depth seems to follow a body size pattern and relates to the type of item that they prey on. Penguins dive with their wing; hence their wing musculature is responsible for the animal maneuverability and strength while diving. In the present study, ecological traits such as diving depths and prey composition are used to explore if morphology relates to foraging habits. A geometric morphometric approach is used to quantitatively address these morphological differences in the wing apparatus of all extant penguins and a fossil species taking into consideration allometric and phylogenetic factors. Results show that morphological differences among penguins with different diets are significant and strong; groups are well separated with the greatest differences found between piscivorous and crustacivorous penguins. Dive depth has a moderate covariation with morphology and a strong correspondence with wing area. Last, Madrynornis mirandus, an exceptionally well-preserved fossil from the Miocene of Patagonia, is found to be close to the piscivorous and generalist piscivorous species. It is proposed that swimming styles correlate with specific traits of the anatomy of wing and pectoral girdle skeleton and muscles.

Bioinspired morphing wings: mechanical design and wind tunnel experiments

Bioinspired morphing wings are part of a novel research direction offering greatly increased adaptability for use in unmanned aerial vehicles. Recent models published in the literature often rely on simplifications of the bird wing apparatus and fail to preserve many of the macroscopic morphological features. Therefore, a more holistic design approach could uncover further benefits of truly bioinspired bird wing models. With this issue in mind, a prototype inspired by crow wings (Corvus genus) is developed, which is capable of planform wing morphing. The prototype imitates the feather structure of real birds and replicates the folding motion with a carbon fiber reinforced polymer skeleton with one controllable degree of freedom. The mechanism supplies a smooth airfoil lifting surface through a continuous morphing motion between a fully extended and a folded state. When extended, it has an elliptic planform and emarginated slots between primary remiges. In the folded state, the wingspan is reduced by 50% with a 40% reduction in surface area and the aspect ratio decreases from 2.9 to 1.2. Experimental data from a subsonic wind tunnel investigation is presented for flow velocities ranging from 5 to 20 m s−1, corresponding to Reynolds numbers between 0.7 × 105–2.8 × 105. The wing is analyzed in the three static states (folded, intermediate, and extended) through aerodynamic coefficients and flow visualizations along the surface. The bioinspired design enables the wing to capture several phenomena found on real bird wings. Through its morphing capabilities and intrinsic softness, the wing can sustain large angles of attack with greatly delayed stall and maintain optimal performance at different velocities.

Life history, systematics and flight ability of the Early Permian stem-mayflies in the genus Misthodotes Sellards, 1909 (Insecta, Ephemerida, Permoplectoptera)

BackgroundThe stem-group of Ephemeroptera is phylogenetically important for understanding key steps in evolutionary history of early pterygote insects. However, these taxa have been mostly studied from the taxonomy point of view focused on the pattern of wing venation and often using only classical optical microscopy devices. In-depth studies on detailed morphology of the different body structures are scarcely performed, although the results are critical for elucidation of life history traits and their evolutionary pattern among the basal pterygotes.ResultsNew information is presented on the morphology of two species of Misthodotes, which are stem-mayflies from the Early Permian. Based on new results obtained from a re-examination of the type specimens and supplementary material, we infer the life history traits of both the adult and larval stages of these Palaeozoic insects and reconsider previous interpretations. For the first time, we report the structure of the thoracic pleura and the articulation at the base of the wing in a stem-group of Ephemeroptera and compare them with those of extant mayflies. We also provide additional support for the systematic placement of investigated taxa and an amended diagnosis of the genus Misthodotes.ConclusionsAdult Misthodotes sharovi and Misthodotes zalesskyi had chewing mouthparts, which enabled them to scavenge or feed on plants. The wing apparatus was adapted for slow powered flapping flight and gliding, using long caudal filaments for steering. The wing base does not have rows of articulary sclerites as previously hypothesized for some Palaeozoic taxa but inflexible axilla similar to that found in modern mayflies. The structure of the thoracic pleura is also similar to that in the crown group of Ephemeroptera, while differences in the course of sutures may be explained by an evolutionary trend towards more powerful dorsoventral flying musculature and forewing-based flight (anteromotorism) in modern taxa. There is no evidence for swarming behaviour and mating in the air as occurs in modern mayflies as they had none of the associated morphological adaptations. Putative larvae of Misthodotes can not be unambiguously associated with the adults. They also exhibit some morphological specializations of Protereismatidae like 9 pairs of abdominal tracheal gills supporting their benthic lifestyle with legs adapted to burrowing.

Bio-Inspired Flexible Flapping Wings with Elastic Deformation

Over the last decades, there has been great interest in understanding the aerodynamics of flapping flight and development of flapping wing Micro Air Vehicles (FWMAVs). The camber deformation and twisting has been demonstrated quantitatively in a number of insects, but making artificial wings that mimic those features is a challenge. This paper reports the development and characterization of artificial wings that can reproduce camber and twisting deformations. By replacing the elastic material at the wing root vein, the root vein would bend upward and inward generating an angle of attack, camber, and twisting deformations while the wing was flapping due to the aerodynamic forces acting on the wing. The flapping wing apparatus was employed to study the flexible wing kinematics and aerodynamics of real scale insect wings. Multidisciplinary experiments were conducted to provide the natural frequency, the force production, three-dimensional wing kinematics, and the effects of wing flexibility experienced by the flexible wings. The results have shown that the present artificial wing was able to mimic the two important features of insect wings: twisting and camber generation. From the force measurement, it is found that the wing with the uniform deformation showed the higher lift/power generation in the flapping wing system. The present developed artificial wing suggests a new guideline for the bio-inspired wing of the FWMAV.

A new primary mobility tool for the visually impaired: A white cane—adaptive mobility device hybrid

ABSTRACTThis article describes pilot testing of an adaptive mobility device-hybrid (AMD-H) combining properties of two primary mobility tools for people who are blind: the long cane and adaptive mobility devices (AMDs). The long cane is the primary mobility tool used by people who are blind and visually impaired for independent and safe mobility and AMDs are adaptive devices that are often lightweight frames approximately body width in lateral dimension that are simply pushed forward to clear the space in front of a person. The prototype cane built for this study had a wing apparatus that could be folded around the shaft of a cane but when unfolded, deployed two wheeled wings 25 cm (9.8 in) to each side of the canetip. This project explored drop-off and obstacle detection for 6 adults with visual impairment using the deployed AMD-H and a standard long cane. The AMD-H improved obstacle detection overall, and was most effective for the smallest obstacles (2 and 6 inch diameter). The AMD-H cut the average drop off threshold from 1.79 inches (4.55 cm) to .96 inches (2.44 cm). All participants showed a decrease in drop off detection threshold and an increase in detection rate (13.9% overall). For drop offs of 1 in (2.54 cm) and 3 in (7.62 cm), all participants showed large improvements with the AMD-H, ranging from 8.4 to 50%. The larger drop offs of 5 in (12.7 cm) and 7 in (17.8 cm) were well detected by both types of canes.

Transverse folding and evolution of the hind wings in beetles (Insecta, Coleoptera)

Sharp intensification of the protective function of the fore wing in Coleoptera has made their flight apparatus posteromotoric and initiated the development of an apparatus for folding the hind wings beneath the elytra. This could hardly take place without a higher deformability of veins relative to each other, which diminished the strength properties of the wing support. The effect has been stressed by the presence of folds. The wing support and folding pattern evolved as interrelated: the former evolved to be more flexible, with no or minimum loss of rigidity; the latter evolved to be less harmful for the supporting structures. The only function performed, as well as simple structure and low specialization of folds made the folding pattern highly labile in the course of evolution. It evolved superior to wing venation, thus defining many transformations of the latter. This evolutionary conservatism of wing venation stemmed from the fact that many veins performed two conflicting functions. For this conflict to be resolved an adaptive compromise was needed, which brought the wing to orthogenetic development. The main evolutionary trends in wing venation and the folding pattern were those towards simplification and higher complexity, respectively. The coleopteran wing has passed two main evolutionary stages. The major evolutionary factors were wing posteromotorism at the first stage of evolution, with a trend toward miniaturization at the second stage. Each stage resulted in the development of a particular wing type, archostematan and “cantharoid”, respectively. They differ fundamentally. In the wing of the former type, the folding and flight apparatus constitute a steady coadaptive ensemble, because their supporting systems overlap considerably. This wing remained stable through evolution, and its structural variations were only minor deviations from the ground plan. The development of the “cantharoid” wing type was an upgrade of the morphofunctional organization. The region of maximum transverse deformations initiated by folding was extruded bayond the basal, supporting, part of the remigium, which contributed much to rigid properties of the chief supporting axes. The two wing apparatus have become more autonomous after acquiring the above structure. This expanded the range of possible specialization and gave rise to a great variety of derived wing types.

Comparative characteristics of the wing apparatus and flight of Syrphid flies (Diptera: Syrphidae)

Comparative analysis of the wing apparatus and flight in nine species of flower flies (Syrphidae) has been performed. Data on the flight velocity, aerodynamic force, wing-beat frequency, stroke amplitude and stroke plane angle, wing area, body mass and volume, as well as correlations between these parameters at the intraspecific and family levels, have been obtained. Based on the obtained data, the subfamilies Syrphinae and Eristalinae have been compared.

Comparative description of the wing apparatus and flight of some flies (diptera, brachycera)

Comparative analysis of the wing apparatus and flight characteristics has been performed on members of five dipteran families (Bombyliidae, Syrphidae, Calliphoridae, Scathophagidae, and Sarcophagidae). We obtained data on flight velocity, aerodynamic force, stroke plane angle, stroke amplitude, wingbeat frequency, wing area, and body mass and volume. The relations between these parameters are analyzed. Characters distinguishing between species of the same genus, members of different genera of the same family, and members of different families have been determined.

Structural-functional peculiarities of the wing apparatus of insects that do not have and do have the maneuvering flight

The work considers character of behavior in flight and discusses peculiarities of structural-functional organization of the wing apparatus of two representatives of insects—the migratory Asian locust Locusta migratoria (a low-maneuvering insect) and the dragonfly-darner Aeshna sp. (an insect able to perform complex maneuvers in air). The main principles underlying the insect wing apparatus activity are considered and the mechanisms allowing the dragonflies to perform complex maneuvers in the flight are analyzed in detail.

When Is a Fly in the Ointment a Solution and not a Problem?

See related article, pages 1212–1218 You never know from where and when the next clue to any particular scientific problem will arise. In the case of cardiac function, it may have been in 1948 from Professor J.W.S. Pringle, who was trying to figure out how flies manage to fly upside down.1 Having mounted a truncated fly wing apparatus on a gyroscopic base, he serendipitously noted that when inertial and damping conditions were just right, the truncated wings oscillated at more than 100 s−1 independent of neuronal innervation (Figure, A). This, he surmised, was attributable to matching an intrinsic resonant property of insect flight muscle to the elastic and inertial properties of the wing and exoskeletal structure, producing a resonant system generating oscillatory power. He called this intrinsic property of insect flight muscle “stretch–activation” because it is a recurrent stretching in the face of persistent Ca2+ levels, not Ca2+ pulses, that activate the actomyosin interaction in these insect flight muscles. This resonant system resembles a parent pushing a child on a swing. The parent must push at the correct time; that is, the addition of energy to the system must be matched to the intrinsic resonance of the system. A, Graph of what Pringle called “free oscillation” of the truncated wing apparatus. The work loop is counter-clockwise, so that as the muscle oscillates, tension is greater during shortening than at the same length during the stretch part of the cycle. The muscle is performing work on the apparatus during shortening. Adapted from Pringle1 with permission of the publisher. B, Abstract tracing of an isometrically contracting rabbit slow muscle fiber after an imposed stretch showing the immediate spike in tension, decay, and second rise in tension. The resonant system in flight muscle can also be …

Direct Measurement of Unsteady Fluid Dynamic Forces for a Hovering Dragonfly

An experimental study of the aerodynamics of a dragonfly in hovering flight is conducted. Measurements are made on a mechanical flapping wing apparatus that simulates, in water, the Reynolds number and reduced frequency of the tandem wing configuration on a dragonfly. The length scale of the flapping wing model is four times larger than on a real dragonfly. The phase difference between the flapping motions of the fore- and hindwings is independently varied in the range 0-90 deg to examine the flow interaction between the wings when the dragonfly is in hovering flight. The time histories and time average values of the fluid dynamic forces and the rate of work show that, in hovering flight, there is only a small interaction between the flows over the fore- and hindwings

Bioengineering. The Wing Apparatus and Flapping Behavior of Hymenoptera.

The wing apparatus of Hymenoptera was observed with a scanning electron microscope, and the structure and function of insect wings were studied. The measurements of displacement of extrinsic skeleton vibration produced by wing flapping of a wasp were made by an optical displacement detector system. The free flight of the wasp was analyzed by a three dimensional motion analysis system. The results of a series of measurements revealed the flight characteristics of Hymenoptera, such as the wing tip velocity, wing path, wave form of extrinsic skeleton vibration, and so forth.

Change of Activity of Locomotor Centers of the Locust Locusta migratoria under Effect of Increased Gravitation

The work studies effects of elevated gravitation on activity of locomotor centers in the locust Locusta migratoria L. Under effect of the increased gravity field the excitation of the motor centers that provide activity of the locus wing apparatus was shown to decrease. Analysis of the data obtained has allowed us concluding that the higher CNS centers (subesophageal ganglion) produce at least two types of excitatory (stimulatory) effects on segmental centers, one of the types affecting motor centers in the rest state, the other, in the active state. We believe that it is the impulses of the second type that are inhibited under effect of the increased radial acceleration on the organism. There is every reason to think that an important role in these processes is played by peculiar structures of the supraesophageal ganglion protocerebrum: mushroom bodies and the central complex that regulates activity of the locust segmental centers both directly and indirectly via the subesophageal ganglion.

Effect of antagonism of mivacurium on recovery of extraocular muscle function

We have measured extraocular muscle function in 41 patients who received neuromuscular block with mivacurium 0.2 mg kg-1 during anaesthesia with propofol, ketorolac, fentanyl and isoflurane in nitrous oxide and oxygen, which was antagonized at the end of surgery with neostigmine 0.05 mg kg-1 and glycopyrronium 0.01 mg kg-1 in 21 of these patients. Extraocular muscle function was measured before and after surgery in each group with the Maddox Wing apparatus and compared with a control group (n = 20) who breathed spontaneously the same gaseous anaesthetic mixture via a reinforced laryngeal mask airway. In patients where the action of mivacurium was antagonized, extraocular muscle function was improved significantly 20 min after antagonism (P < 0.001) compared with those who received no antagonism. At 60 min after antagonism, there were no differences between the groups. There were no differences between patients who received no neuromuscular blockers and those who received blocker and antagonist.

USE OF SIMPLE TESTS TO DETERMINE THE RESIDUAL EFFECTS OF THE ANALGESIC COMPONENT OF BALANCED ANAESTHESIA

In order to evaluate simple means of determining the rate of recovery after general anaesthesia, the usefulness of the critical flicker fusion threshold test, the Maddox wing apparatus and the visual analogue scale were compared. The postanaesthetic recovery score was used as a reference. Two patient groups (n = 15 in each) received, in a randomized double-blind study, a similar balanced anaesthesia for Caesarean section, except that the analgesic component was either fentanyl 2.5 micrograms kg-1 i.v. or buprenorphine 7.5 micrograms kg-1 i.v. Maddox wing apparatus and visual analogue scale were sensitive enough to differentiate between the postanaesthetic residual effects of the two opioids, but critical flicker fusion threshold and, especially, postanaesthetic recovery score were insensitive in this respect. There was no difference between the two patient groups in mean arterial pressure and heart rate. Our results show that the residual effects of different kinds of opioids as an analgesic component of balanced anaesthesia can be differentiated using simple means like Maddox wing apparatus and visual analogue scales.

振動翼推進に関する研究

The purpose of this paper is to study the problem which a propulsion method by fin stroke like fish and dolphins is practically applied to the propulsive system of ships. The Fin Ship, which mounts a dolphin-style oscillating wing apparatus under the bottom of the ship, is made for trial and a feasibility test from the engineering stand-point is carried out.The Fin Ship has the following merits; it is free from rolling and pitching of the ship; the danger of one being involved into the rotating screw can be eliminated; contamination of water resulting from the screw stirring up water can be prevented; the propulsive efficiency which gives about 66% in low frequency range is high compared with that of conventional small propellers.It is found that this new propulsion system has great possibility to be applied for low speed ships.