Window Design Research Articles

Utilizing the Achievements of Data Acquiring Solution and Cloud Service Platform for China-Africa Cooperation on Satellite Remote Sensing Application

Abstract. This study examines the collaborative approach in China-Africa satellite remote sensing initiatives based on solutions of satellite data acquiring, sharing and application experiences. It specifically addresses the data coverage requirements and current coverage scenarios of China's natural resources land satellites in Africa. By establishing the China-Africa Cooperation Centers on Satellite Remote Sensing Application, adopting a multi-level distributed technology center model, and implementing cross-continental remote sensing cloud services through an internet-based cloud platform, this initiative aims to enhance the direct utilization of satellite data in Africa. Furthermore, strategic satellite observation window designs tailored to seasonal changes have increased the frequency of valid coverage over the entire African continent to at least once a year. Such advancements pave the way for real-time monitoring applications, particularly in crucial areas such as sustainable development projects and disaster response efforts. Therefore, the study also provides some useful case studies that are anchored on the Sustainable Development Goals.

Optimized design and comparative analysis of double-glazed photovoltaic windows for enhanced light harvesting and energy efficiency in cold regions of China

This study investigates the daylighting performance and energy efficiency optimization strategies of double-glazed photovoltaic windows (DS-STPV) in cold regions of China. By conducting a comprehensive comparative analysis with traditional and energy-efficient window systems, this research aims to identify high-efficiency building solutions tailored to extreme climatic conditions. Amidst the escalating global energy demand and the pressing need for energy conservation and emission reduction, Building-Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) technology is increasingly recognized for its potential and value as a critical method for harnessing green energy. However, the widespread adoption of BIPV technology faces several challenges, including cost-effectiveness, conversion efficiency, system stability, and architectural aesthetic integration. Utilizing the T&A House from the 3rd International Solar Decathlon as an empirical case study, this research employs Ecotect and DesignBuilder simulation software to systematically evaluate the daylighting effect and energy performance of DS-STPV. The analysis considers various key design parameters, including photovoltaic cell coverage, window orientation, and window-to-wall ratio. Through refined modeling and multi-dimensional analysis, this study aims to identify the optimal design configurations of DS-STPV windows in cold regions, with the goal of simultaneously achieving superior natural lighting quality and significant building energy efficiency. The findings indicate that a south-facing DS-STPV window design with approximately 30% photovoltaic cell coverage and a window-to-wall ratio of 30% effectively balances daylighting requirements and energy efficiency in cold regions of China. This design strategy not only ensures an abundance of natural light in the room, but also significantly reduces the building’s energy consumption, proving the superior performance of DS-STPV windows in cold climates. In addition, the unique optical properties of DS-STPV windows reduce glare, further improving the overall quality of the indoor environment. In summary, this study provides a robust scientific foundation for the application of DS-STPV windows in cold regions, offering practical guidance and reference for optimizing energy efficiency and facilitating green transformation in future building design.

Designing Intensive Care Unit Windows in a Mediterranean Climate: Efficiency, Daylighting, and Circadian Response

Hospital intensive care units (ICUs) frequently experience inadequate lighting conditions, with low daytime and excessive nighttime illuminance, which can negatively affect patient recovery and the work performance of health personnel. This study examines the impact of window design parameters—specifically, window-to-wall ratio (WWR) and window position—and interior surface reflectance on visual comfort, lighting performance, energy consumption, and human well-being in intensive care units (ICUs) in Mediterranean climates, according to orientation. Using dynamic lighting metrics, such as daylight autonomy (DA) and circadian stimulus autonomy (CSA), this research quantifies the influence of these design factors. The results suggest that a WWR of 25% is optimal for achieving sufficient DA and CSA values, with centered window configurations preferred for uniform daylight distribution and circadian stimulus. This study further emphasizes the significance of interior reflectance, recommending bright coatings to maximize outcomes, while advising against dark finishes, particularly in north-facing rooms or with smaller WWRs. Although Seville shows slightly better performance than Barcelona, the proposed configurations are effective across both locations, highlighting the prioritization of window sizing, positioning, and reflectance over Mediterranean geographical differences. These findings offer practical guidance for ICU design to enhance natural lighting, supporting patient recovery and overall well-being through improved circadian alignment.

Generalization of noise insulation afforded by common window designs with active noise control exposed to moving noise source

A window device that can provide noise insulation while maintaining natural ventilation is highly desirable and is especially sought after in heavily noise-polluted and hot-humid climates cities, such as Southeast Asian cities. However, a solution to provide such a window is non-trivial because the design principles guiding acoustics and ventilation are diametrically opposed. While louvre windows have traditionally been used in communal, healthcare, and some educational setting to provide a balance between acoustics and ventilation benefits, it is still sorely lacking to provide sufficient insertion loss without sacrificing ventilation entirely. A new plenum window design has recently garnered research and market interest to tackle the dichotomous problem. Additionally, the application of active noise control (ANC) in windows is gaining popularity and offers potential solutions to improve noise control without compromising ventilation. However, it remains unclear how different traditional and modern window designs compare in terms of their acoustic performance, especially when exposed to non-stationary noise sources such as urban traffic, a major noise pollutant. Thus, the present study seeks to provide a generalization of insertion loss provided by different window designs exposed to moving sources including a tangent study on ANC implementation via a time-domain approach.

Ambient noise criteria framework for future environmental noise mitigation targets in Singapore

This study aims to establish a framework for outlining future noise mitigation strategies tailored to the unique context of Singapore and evaluates potential precautions. Singapore, as a city-state, is known as a 'city in a garden,' situated in the typically tropical climate. By incorporating a comparative analysis of noise criteria from local guidelines across countries from Europe, America, and Asia, the study aims to place Singapore's acoustic limits within an international context. This comparison, enhanced with the World Health Organization's health and well-being standards, seeks to establish a comprehensive framework for acoustical design assessment in residential, office, and educational buildings targeting resting and cognitive functions. In conclusion, starting from a global perspective, the study points to the importance of focusing on the local context and acknowledging the challenges and benefits that the context brings for acoustical comfort. The study discusses the importance of context and content in crafting acoustical design criteria, considering the impact of biophilic design and active noise cancellation windows to achieve adaptive acoustic comfort in Singapore's built environment.

Phase-changing NIPAM-AM/ATO hydrogels for thermochromic smart windows with highly adaptive solar modulation

Improving the solar regulation and reducing the response temperature of thermochromic smart windows are pivotal importance for energy-saving buildings. However, these two strategies are challenging to be integrated into one window. Herein, a novel composite hydrogel based on N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) doped with antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO) nanoparticles and acrylamide (AM) was developed for producing a high-performance smart window, which successfully achieved enhanced solar energy regulation and reduced response temperature. This smart window was fabricated by combining a reversible thermoresponsive hydrogel (TAH) that acted as a thermochromic material with a ATO multilayer film that performed as a transparent heater. The as-prepared smart window could modulate solar light over a range from ultraviolet (UV) to infrared (IR) radiation and achieved active responses to high-temperature weather. The smart window showed high luminous transmittance (Tlum, 82.92 %) together with an excellent solar modulation performance (ΔTlum = 73.31 %, ΔTIR = 38.26 %, and ΔTsol = 60.74 %), and a lower critical solution temperature of 32 °C. Even after 120 high- and low-temperature cyclic durability tests, the smart windows still exhibited a high solar modulation capability. In outdoor demonstrations, the as-prepared smart window exhibited a promising temperature regulation ability under strong solar irradiation. Therefore, the present universal modification framework provided some insights for the future design of energy-saving windows.

Visualizing and Understanding Patch Interactions in Vision Transformer.

Vision transformer (ViT) has become a leading tool in various computer vision tasks, owing to its unique self-attention mechanism that learns visual representations explicitly through cross-patch information interactions. Despite having good success, the literature seldom explores the explainability of ViT, and there is no clear picture of how the attention mechanism with respect to the correlation across comprehensive patches will impact the performance and what is the further potential. In this work, we propose a novel explainable visualization approach to analyze and interpret the crucial attention interactions among patches for ViT. Specifically, we first introduce a quantification indicator to measure the impact of patch interaction and verify such quantification on attention window design and indiscriminative patches removal. Then, we exploit the effective responsive field of each patch in ViT and devise a window-free transformer (WinfT) architecture accordingly. Extensive experiments on ImageNet demonstrate that the exquisitely designed quantitative method is shown able to facilitate ViT model learning, leading the top-1 accuracy by 4.28% at most. More remarkably, the results on downstream fine-grained recognition tasks further validate the generalization of our proposal.

Parameters and barriers affecting the marketability of energy efficient residential buildings: a case study in Turkey

ABSTRACT The data indicate that merely improving energy efficiency within energy-efficient buildings (EEBs) is insufficient to significantly reduce the energy demand of the building sector. To achieve substantial reductions, strategies must also focus on increasing the number of EEBs within the existing building stock. However, research in this area remains limited. Therefore, this study aims to explore the current market demand and barriers for EEBs, examine the impact of various design decisions on housing prices, identify the factors influencing the marketability of residential buildings, and analyze customer purchasing decisions in Turkey (Türkiye). For this purpose, a comprehensive literature review was first made. It was observed that factors such as macroeconomic conditions, sales price, housing opportunities, location, brand, customer demographics, energy efficiency, housing features, and aesthetics were frequently discussed in the literature. Based on the literature review and preliminary study results, among other factors, aesthetic appreciation is considered the most applicable design strategy, and windows and balconies are identified as building components that can simultaneously affect energy efficiency, marketability, and aesthetics. Then, as a preliminary study to determine major marketing strategies, the housing marketing strategies were surveyed and analyzed from the real estate sector in different cities as provided in the advertisements posted on their websites. Furthermore, a comprehensive e-mail survey was conducted with 351 different real estate companies amongst 22 cities of Türkiye. Based on the findings, enhancing architectural designs could potentially elevate the perceived value of energy-efficient homes by up to 18% among consumers and this can increase the marketability.

On the lightweight design of laminated insulating glass units in cruise ships

ABSTRACT Modern cruise ships employ many large windows to enable passengers to enjoy the marine environment. Most windows are insulating glass units (IGUs) consisting of laminated glass and a hermetically sealed cavity. These laminated IGUs exhibit three physical effects under bending: (1) geometric nonlinearity of the glass panes, (2) shear transfer in the laminated glass, and (3) load sharing due to the hermetically sealed cavity. The Authors have previously studied the (1) and (3) effects on the window mechanical behaviour and glass pane thickness determination. Hence, this paper investigates through optimisation how all these effects together lighten the IGUs, and how the shear transfer affects the IGU mechanical behaviour with the optimised thicknesses. All three combined effects have positive effects on the IGU weight. These results are more pronounced for large and thin IGUs subjected to high design loads. For example, the choice of interlayer material is less important (for optimum weight) for small windows subjected to a low design load. Since all the effects are important, using the finite element method is recommended to achieve a lightweight window design.

XCT images-based modeling for elucidating electrochemical inert phase-dependent multiscale electrode kinetic behaviors

The electrochemically inert phase (EIP) within the electrode is formed by the combination of carbon black and binder, characterized by a highly heterogeneous spatial distribution and structural morphology. This heterogeneity impairs electrode performance under varying discharge rates and temperatures. In this study, X-ray computed tomography is employed to image the original electrode. The resulting grayscale images are digitally processed to reveal the two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) features of the EIP morphology, thereby providing a design window to understand the influence of EIP morphology. The physical structure characterization indicates that, compared to bulk-like EIP (B-EIP), film-like EIP (F-EIP) tends to cover the active surface of the active material (AM), exacerbating the heterogeneity of the lithiation reactions within the electrode. The reduction in the AM active surface area correlates the state of lithiation (SOL) of particles with their active specific surface area (αa). At low temperatures, the temperature sensitivity of electrodes intensifies the risk of αa loss, promoting heterogeneous reaction transfer between particles. The Biot number (Bi) is used to evaluate the competing mechanisms between interfacial reactions and bulk diffusion within particles. In electrodes with a high EIP content, the reaction rate at the particle/electrolyte interface is accelerated, causing particle performance to be dominated by interfacial reactions. Finally, the electrochemistry and heat generation from the particle-level to the electrode-level in thicker electrodes are examined. It demonstrates that ion diffusion in the pore controls interfacial reactions and heat transport behavior. Aggregated high-flux reactions and localized hot spots exacerbate the heterogeneous degradation and side reactions within the electrode.

SOC chip based smart window curtain design

Relying on the rapid development of embedded systems, it becomes possible to integrate the system hardware into the same chip, and the system on chip SOC (System on Chips) is therefore birthed. This paper will be based on the SOC hardware and software co-design and verification, through the design of intelligent curtains for the specific implementation design of a kind of application in the al-in-one multi-functional machine motherboard design, the motherboard control core using SOC chip, integrated two MCU units, through the main control screen to display the control information to achieve the intelligent window switching conversion switching through the key such as manual mode, timer mode, light control mode. This design uses Keil as the software writing platform to realize the SOC master control system based on the on-chip bus interconnection. As well as this design can effectively reduce the degree of system cumbersomeness and provide smart window design ideas.

A time-domain study on the effects of noise source incidence on plenum window with active noise control

Active noise control (ANC) applied to the built environment on windows presents itself as a potential solution to reduce noise exposure for residents living near major noise sources since windows are typically the primary path for noise intrusion on a building's facade. The plenum window design seeks to address the dual dichotomy of ventilation and acoustic dilemma that plagues hot-humid and highly noise-polluted cities. In the present study, a time-domain approach is developed to investigate the effect of varying impinging angles of noise sources on the acoustic performance of a plenum window which can represent different storeys of the receiving end of noise exposure. Furthermore, the ANC performance of a control system affected by the varying noise sources is explored in this study. While most ANC studies have limited their scope of study to frequency domain investigations, the present study takes a time-domain approach to account for the causality of the ANC system concerning the primary noise source and secondary control source, which is thus more accurate to the behaviour of a real-time ANC controller. A total of 121 simulation studies were performed, and the findings show that the plenum window's PNC (passive noise control) is affected by the incident angle of a noise source based on its tonal frequency, which is pronounced near the aperture's cut-off frequency, faperture. However, the ANC performance due to varying incident angles of primary noise remains unaffected even at high frequencies with a standard deviation, σANC < 1 dB except for the 630 Hz tonal frequency, which coincides with faperture.

Optimization design of the cavity tuning and RF input coupler for an 11 MeV superconducting cyclotron

This study addresses the compact design requirements for a 11 MeV superconducting cyclotron utilized in isotope production by proposing a design and optimization scheme for a radio frequency (RF) input coupling system. The system, comprising a coupler loop, transmission lines, and RF window, has been tailored to accommodate the spatial constraints imposed by the super conducting magnet radius, thereby facilitating efficient RF power transfer to the RF cavity and minimizing input power. Structural optimization of the coupler loop and RF window has achieved S11 parameter of -82.23 dB, significantly reducing input power while maintaining high coupling efficiency. A coaxial coupler suitable for lower frequency ranges has been designed, employing a tapered structure for the transmission line to ensure a smooth transition to reduce impedance discontinuity effects and enhance adjustability. The multi-stage design of the RF window has achieved fine impedance matching, significantly lowering the S11 parameter. In response to frequency drift caused by RF loss and temperature increase, the study utilizes perturbation theory to analyze the perturbation effect of coupling components on the resonant frequency, designing an adjustable structure with both coarse and precise tuning capabilities, realizing tuning precision at the kHz/mm level and a tuning range of several MHz. A conjectural formula has been proposed based on the impact of the tuner's structural parameters on the resonant frequency, accurately calculating the equivalent inductance of the tuner and the resonant frequency of the RF cavity post-tuner installation, with the maximum estimation error of the resonant frequency kept within 0.1%, offering significant guidance for engineering design.

Evaluating annual thermal discomfort time ratio of indoor occupants caused by solar radiation using a novel model

Thermal comfort of indoor occupants exposed to solar radiation is receiving widespread attention. Researchers have proposed many models to predict solar radiation and related indexes are used to evaluate thermal comfort. However, there are some limitations in the existing solar radiation models and evaluation indexes, such as only applying to sunny weather and requiring intensive modeling work. This study adopts a mathematical model called the improved HNU Solar Model and proposes a new evaluation index called the annual thermal discomfort time ratio by solar radiation (ratiotd, solar) to evaluate thermal comfort of indoor occupants exposed to solar radiation. The effects of different window parameters, i.e. window direction, window transmittance (Tsol) and window-to-wall ratio (WWR) on ratiotd, solar were also analyzed. The results show that the indoor area less than 2.0 m away from the window is easy to have solar discomfort. And for every 0.1 reduction in WWR, the average values of the four directions are reduced by 3% to 4%; and for every 0.1 reduction in Tsol, the ratiotd, solar values of four window directions are reduced by 4% to 6%. This study provides references for evaluating and optimizing the window design to create thermally comfortable environments for indoor occupants.

Self-adaptive energy-efficient windows with enhanced synergistic regulation of broadband infrared thermal radiation

Effective management of both near-infrared (NIR) radiation and long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) thermal emission through window design holds tremendous promise for achieving carbon neutrality in the building sector. Compared to the traditional static low emissivity (Low-E) and solar regulating windows, emerging emissivity-altering windows can better adapt to varied weather. However, dynamic windows with self-adaptive solar radiation and emissivity control have long been challenging, primarily due to the intricate broadband spectrum manipulation requiring sophisticated material design. Herein, by employing the NIR transparent hydrogen-doped In2O3 (IHO) as a function layer (ε = 0.13, TNIR = 79.8 %), we present a broadband self-adaptive radiative thermal management (SRTM) window based on Fabry-Perot resonator. Compared to the common tin-indium oxide (ITO)-based counterpart, the IHO-based SRTM window shows a 70 % enhancement in NIR power regulation ability (10.9 %) with remaining emissivity regulation ability (0.26). It contributes significantly to energy conservation offering an annual energy saving and equivalent CO2 emissions reduction of up to 20 % (411 MJ·m−2) and 244 tons/yr, compared to traditional Low-E windows globally.

The Nanoarchitectonics of Sustainable Smart Window Design by LCST Modulation of Photoresponsive Molecular π‐Systems

AbstractLower Critical Solution Temperature (LCST) of macromolecular systems is important in thermoresponsive smart window design. However, controlling the LCST behavior and sustaining the shelf‐life are challenging tasks. Herein, how photochemistry can be tweaked to design sustainable smart windows that allow controlled transmission of solar radiation is described. The cyanostilbene substituted naphthalenes 1(Z) and 2(Z), show Z/E‐photoisomerization and subsequent Mallory cyclization resulting in significant modulation in clouding temperatures (Tcloud). At 1 mM concentration, the Tcloud of 1(Z), and 1(E) are 33 ± 0.1 and 28 ± 0.13 °C, respectively whereas 2(Z) and 2(E) exhibit Tcloud around 37 ± 0.1 and 30 ± 0.1 °C, respectively. The high thermal barrier for the E/Z back isomerization of 1(E) and 2(E) and removal of oxygen from the reaction medium allow control of the photoprocesses, thereby facilitating the construction of sustainable smart windows that respond to the surrounding temperature. A 30 × 30 cm2 window prototype containing an aqueous solution of 1(Z) (1 mM) exhibits a fully transmissive state at 25 °C and a nearly zero‐transmissive state at 33 °C for 10,000 cycles of operation.

Lightweight self-similar hierarchical metamaterials with subwavelength and superwide bandgaps

Vibration isolation has always been a flourishing subject with practical interest because it helps in reducing structure vibration that has serious effects on moving vehicles and equipment operation, and it exists everywhere and incessantly in daily life. With the advantage of predictable and designable frequency bandgaps, elastic metamaterial has attracted a lot of research attention in the past decade and beyond. Inspired by the design of Chinese traditional window and kirigami pattern, this paper introduces a self-similar hierarchical elastic metamaterial that can offer superwide subwavelength bandgaps without increasing system weight. The comparison of band structures obtained by finite element simulation manifests significant effects of hierarchy design on lowering bandgap frequency and widening bandgap width. Through comprehensive analyses, the principles for maximizing bandgap width without increasing system weight are highlighted. The vibration response of supercells that consist of 2 × 3 unitcells is constructed for both the first- and second-order hierarchical structures are investigated. After analyzing the different working frequencies of supercells with distinct hierarchical ratios, the first-order and second-order hybrid hierarchical supercells containing unitcells with complementary bandgaps are designed. An excellent increase in effective and perfect attenuation width is demonstrated. The work presented herein provides a new and effective method for generating subwavelength and superwide bandgaps in lightweight structures. This advancement holds great promise for improving the application potential of elastic metamaterials.

Life Assessment of Deep-Sea Observation Windows under Different Design Considerations

As a key component of deep-sea manned submersibles, the observation window is usually constructed with polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) material. During the design of the observation windows, the consideration of actual lifespan and its influential factors is insufficient. There are no clear provisions in the widely applied specifications. In this paper, based on the continuum damage mechanics model, combined with the viscoelastic relationship of PMMA material, a series of calculations were performed on the PMMA observation window. The parametric analysis of the fatigue crack-initiation life of the observation window at various thickness-to-diameter ratios (1.6, 1.4, 1.2, and 1.0), different friction coefficients (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3), and different transition arc radii (4000 mm and 6000 mm) was carried out. The calculated crack positions in the numerical mode used for validation closely align with those in the tested window. And simulation results show that the fatigue life of the observation window gradually decreases with the decrease in the thickness–diameter ratio and the increase in the friction coefficient. However, the increase in the transition arc radius will prolong the fatigue life of the observation window, which is higher than that of the original structure.

Design and Implementation of Electrochromic Smart Windows with Self-Driven Thermoelectric Power Generation.

Electrochromic smart windows can achieve controllable modulation of color and transmittance under an external electric field with active light and thermal control capabilities, which helps reduce energy consumption caused by building cooling and heating. However, electrochromic smart windows often rely on external power circuits, which greatly affects the independence and portability of smart windows. Based on this, an electrochromic smart window driven by temperature-difference power generation was designed and implemented. This smart window provides automatic and manual control of the reversible cycle of electrochromic glass from light blue to dark blue according to user requirements and changes in the surrounding environment, achieving adaptive adjustment of visual comfort and reducing energy consumption. The infrared radiation rejection (from 780 to 2500 nm) of the electrochromic smart window is as high as 77.3%, and its transmittance (from 380 to 780 nm) fluctuates between 39.2% and 56.4% with changes in working state. Furthermore, the temperature in the indoor simulation device with electrochromic glass as the window was 15 °C lower than that with ordinary glass as the window after heating with a 250 W Philips infrared lamp for ten minutes. After 2000 cycles of testing, the performance of the smart window was basically maintained at its initial values, and it has broad application prospects in buildings, vehicles, and high-speed rail systems.

SPCM@PNIPAm-PAM hydrogel thermochromic smart windows with multi-stage optical modulation for building energy saving

As a bridge connecting indoor and outdoor environment, windows cause extremely high energy consumption, and near infrared light entering rooms is the primary reason for the increase of cooling load in summer. Thermochromic smart windows, which dynamically regulate light transmittance through stimulus–response mechanism, aroused enormous interest in building energy-saving. However, the development of traditional thermochromic smart windows is often limited by single function and inappropriate response temperature. Herein, a novel fully autonomous multi-stage thermal-response@storage (MTRS) smart window that responds to the ambient temperature was designed by using the thermoresponsive SPCM@PNIPAm-PAM hydrogel for energy-saving and privacy protection. The SPCM@PNIPAm-PAM hydrogel exhibited satisfactory luminous transmittance of 62.70 % and solar modulation ability (ΔTsol,25-40°C=27.39 %, ΔTsol,40-55°C= 19.28 %). With the temperature changing from low (<28 °C) to medium (28–45 °C) to high (>45 °C), the MTRS smart window realized the multi-stage reversible transition from opaque to transparent to opaque, which achieved privacy protection at night and thermal insulation during the day. The obtained MTRS smart window achieved a peak temperature drop of 12.14 °C compared with the regular window on a certain day in the midsummer in Tianjin region. Based on this day’s temperature data, the cooling load of was calculated, and the energy saving was further calculated, which was as high as 21.37 %. The proposed work has a great significance for further development of effective smart windows and deserves attention for the future design of windows for energy saving.