Wind Energy Facilities Research Articles

Energy storage needs for an Australian national electricity market grid without combustion fuels

AbstractThe opportunity to achieve a wind and solar energy only Australian national electricity market (NEM) grid is linked to the development of massive energy storage systems. Photovoltaic solar energy is unavailable nighttime and reduced when it is cloudy or raining. Wind energy also drops some days to zero, with similarly large fluctuations between maximum and minimum energy supplies. This fundamental aspect is being ignored when only trying to increase the nominal capacity of wind energy and solar photovoltaic facilities. The need for a massive energy storage system to properly use this increased capacity is highlighted by the high‐frequency energy generation data by source that we show for the NEM that is covering most of South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales, and Queensland, with the only exception of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. This analysis highlights the present energy storage needs for a NEM wind and solar only. The nominal capacity of wind and solar, and the energy storage, that is supposed to increase up to unbelievably high values, to only cover the electricity production, is due to increase even more, to cover the TPES demand, and not only the electricity demand, of a country without combustion fuels.

Winds of change: Legitimacy, withdrawal, and interdependency from a decentralized wind-to-hydrogen regime in Orkney, Scotland

Community-owned renewable energy facilities support decentralized low-carbon energy and community development by empowering local political organizations; however, the consequences of community empowerment on local politics are not always anticipated or, in some cases, desired. While there is no shortage of research on the factors for or barriers against energy project outcomes, community renewable energy research lacks engagement with such projects’ effects on local governance post-implementation. ‘Community benefit’ is not a natural product of renewable energy technology implementation, but of accompanying complex socio-political processes, organizations, and arrangements. Drawing from governance perspectives and field research, this ethnographic study describes governance implications associated with a shift to a community wind and hydrogen energy facility on the island of Shapinsay, Scotland. Specifically, it pulls from local perspectives to illuminate pathways in which a particular community renewable energy political group considerably reshaped local power relations. The findings indicate that wind energy income and hydrogen production control created new political opportunities that have transformed governance on the island in novel ways: community legitimacy, state withdrawal, and private interdependence. The study concludes by applying these empirical insights to community renewable energy policy recommendations.

Anthropogenic noise does not surpass land cover in explaining habitat selection of Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido)

AbstractOver the last century, increasing human populations and conversion of grassland to agriculture have had severe consequences for numbers of Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido). Understanding Greater Prairie-Chicken response to human disturbance, including the effects of anthropogenic noise and landscape modification, is vital for conserving remaining populations because these disturbances are becoming more common in grassland systems. Here, we evaluate the effect of low-frequency noise emitted from a wind energy facility on habitat selection. We used the Normalized Difference Soundscape Index, a ratio of human-generated and biological acoustic components, to determine the impact of the dominant acoustic characteristics of habitat relative to physical landscape features known to influence within–home range habitat selection. Female Greater Prairie-Chickens avoided wooded areas and row crops but showed no selection or avoidance of wind turbines based on the availability of these features across their home range. Although the acoustic environment near the wind energy facility was dominated by anthropogenic noise, our results show that acoustic habitat selection is not evident for this species. In contrast, our work highlights the need to reduce the presence of trees, which have been historically absent from the region, as well as decrease the conversion of grassland to row-crop agriculture. Our findings suggest physical landscape changes surpass altered acoustic environments in mediating Greater Prairie-Chicken habitat selection.

Wind turbine noise limits propagation of greater prairie‐chicken boom chorus, but does it matter?

AbstractAcoustic signals are often critical elements of mating displays, and lekking male greater prairie‐chickens (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus) use their boom vocalization for this purpose. We quantified the acoustic characteristics of the boom chorus created by multiple male greater prairie‐chickens vocalizing simultaneously at leks in Brown County, NE, USA, in 2013 and 2014. We used these data to evaluate (a) the role of the boom chorus in prairie‐chicken breeding dynamics and (b) the impact of a wind energy facility on the acoustic signal of the boom chorus. We sampled the chorus using audio recorders placed in transects extending from leks; the chorus exhibited an average peak frequency of 297 ± 13 Hz. The mean chorus signal‐to‐noise ratio declined from 15.7 dB (50 m) to 2.6 dB (800 m), and wind speed and direction, topography, and relative humidity caused variation in signal‐to‐noise ratio at a given distance and location. Chorus recordings from leks within 1,000 m of a wind turbine had lower signal‐to‐noise ratio (βturbine = −5.659, SE = 1.289) than leks farther from turbines. The chorus signal‐to‐noise ratio increased slightly with more males present on the lek (~0.1 dB for each additional male; βmales = 0.177; SE = 0.037) and considerably more as more females visited the lek (~1.4 dB for each additional female; βfemales = 2.498, SE = 0.235; βfemales2 = −0.309, SE = 0.039). Our results provide support for the signal enhancement hypothesis that proposes the boom chorus is influenced notably by male–male competition for females on the lek, rather than functioning solely to advertise the presence of the lek to recruit females. Our results also suggest the choruses emanating from small leks have the greatest potential to be masked by anthropogenic (wind turbine) noise, which may affect the breeding success of male and female prairie‐chickens.

The impact of wind energy facilities on grouse: a systematic review

There is increasing concern about the impact of the current boom in wind energy facilities (WEF) and associated infrastructure on wildlife. However, the direct and indirect effects of these facilities on the mortality, occurrence and behaviour of rare and threatened species are poorly understood. We conducted a literature review to examine the potential impacts of WEF on grouse species. We studied whether grouse (1) collide with wind turbines, (2) show behavioural responses in relation to wind turbine developments, and (3) if there are documented effects of WEF on their population sizes or dynamics. Our review is based on 35 sources, including peer-reviewed articles as well as grey literature. Effects of wind turbine facilities on grouse have been studied for eight species. Five grouse species have been found to collide with wind turbines, in particular with the towers. Fifteen studies reported behavioural responses in relation to wind turbine facilities in grouse (seven species), including spatial avoidance, displacement of lekking or nesting sites, or the time invested in breeding vs. non-breeding behaviour. Grouse were affected at up to distances of 500 m by WEF infrastructure, with indications of effects also at bigger distances. In six cases, a local reduction in grouse abundance was reported in areas with wind turbines, which possibly affected population size. Due to the differences in study duration and design, we cannot provide general conclusions on the effects of WEF on grouse populations. We advise applying the precautionary principle by keeping grouse habitats free of wind energy developments, in particular where populations are small or locally threatened. Future studies should preferably apply a long-term before-after-control-impact design for multiple areas to allow for more general conclusions to be drawn on the effects of WEF on rare and threatened wildlife species.

Red bat fatality: Geographic extents through deuterium and niche models

ABSTRACTBat fatality at wind energy facilities is a conservation issue, but its effect on bat populations is difficult to estimate. We have little understanding of wind turbine effects on bat population persistence, in part because we have poor knowledge of bat migration pathways and hence the source populations for individual fatalities. We used deuterium ratio analysis combined with genetic algorithm for rule‐set prediction and the web‐based isoscapes modeling, analysis, and prediction in a geographic information system environment as a novel approach. Our objectives were to explore the utility of these methods together and map the geographic extents of eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) specimens salvaged in 2008–2010 from a single, 92‐km2 wind energy facility in Illinois, USA. Results indicate that combining these methods can be successful and support their use with species where ranges may be less well defined. Because of the migratory nature of this species and the range of deuterium values of pixels in our isotope model, we predicted that 18% and 82% of the specimens would have isotope results inside and outside of the wind facility's isocline respectively. We concluded that 71.4% of the specimens had isotope signatures placing them outside the wind facility's isocline. It could be argued that the wide distribution of bat fatalities dilutes the overall effect of those fatalities on the bat species; however, if other facilities show a similar pattern, each facility could have cumulative and far reaching population‐level effects. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Fabrication and Experimentation of Diffuser Augmented Wind Turbine

Wind Energy is turning into a big supply of renewable energy throughout the globe. This ever increasing field can probably reach the limit of accessibility and utility with the wind energy facility sites and size of the turbine itself. Therefore, it's needed to develop wind capturing devices that may produce energy within the locations wherever typical horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) are too unrealistic to put in and operate. A diffuser augmented wind turbine (DAWT) is one such invention. DAWTs increase the ability output of the rotor by increasing the wind speed into the rotor employing a duct. The main objective of the project is to analyze the flow through the diffuser by placing it in wind tunnel and further the results are compared with the computational results. The purpose of investigating the flow through, the diffuser is to find out the behavior of wind flow at the throat region of the diffuser. Numerical analysis of diffuser is performed using the tool ANSYS FLUENT 15 and then by experimentation in wind tunnel. Experiments were carried out for investigating the flow pattern inside the circular profile diffuser of radius 60mm, Throat diameter of 200mm, inlet and outlet diameter of diffuser is 320mm. Pitot tubes are inserted on the rake and then mount on the throat region of diffuser for flow measurement in that region. Differential pressure transducers which gives voltage output are used for sensing the pressures from Pitot tubes, static tubes which is mount on surface of test section of tunnel and PS tube which is used for reference velocity. Further obtained pressure will be converted to velocity and get the required result. After completion of computational and experimental work comparable results were obtained.

Geographic context affects the landscape change and fragmentation caused by wind energy facilities.

Wind energy generation affects landscapes as new roads, pads, and transmission lines are constructed. Limiting the landscape change from these facilities likely minimizes impacts to biodiversity and sensitive wildlife species. We examined the effects of wind energy facilities’ geographic context on changes in landscape patterns using three metrics: portion of undeveloped land, core area index, and connectance index. We digitized 39 wind facilities and the surrounding land cover and measured landscape pattern before and after facility construction using the amount, core area, and connectivity of undeveloped land within one km around newly constructed turbines and roads. New facilities decreased the amount of undeveloped land by 1.8% while changes in metrics of landscape pattern ranged from 50 to 140%. Statistical models indicated pre-construction development was a key factor explaining the impact of new wind facilities on landscape metrics, with pre-construction road networks, turbine spacing, and topography having smaller influences. As the proportion of developed land around facilities increased, a higher proportion of the facility utilized pre-construction developed land and a lower density of new roads were built, resulting in smaller impacts to undeveloped landscapes. Building of new road networks was also a predictor of landscape fragmentation. Utilizing existing development and carefully placing turbines may provide opportunities to minimize the impacts of new wind energy facilities.

Machine learning applied to wind turbine blades impact detection

The significant development of wind power generation worldwide brings, together with environmental benefits, wildlife concerns, especially for volant species vulnerability to interactions with wind energy facilities. For surveying such events, an automatic system for continuous monitoring of blade collisions is critical. An onboard multi-senor system capable of providing real-time collision detection using integrated vibration sensors is developed and successfully tested. However, to detect low signal-to-noise ratio impact can be challenging; hence, an advanced impact detection method has been developed and presented in this article. A robust automated detection algorithm based on support vector machine is proposed. After a preliminary signal pre-processing, geometric features specifically selected for their sensitivity to impact signals are extracted from raw vibration signal and energy distribution graph. The predictive model is formulated by training conventional support vector machine using extracted features for impact identification. Finally, the performance of the predictive model is evaluated by accuracy, precision, and recall. Results indicate a linear regression relationship between signal-to-noise ratio and model overall performance. The proposed method is much reliable on higher signal-to-noise ratio [Formula: see text], but it shows to be ineffective at lower signal-to-noise ratio [Formula: see text].

Effects of wind turbine noise on the surrounding soundscape in the context of greater-prairie chicken courtship vocalizations

The development of wind energy facilities in grasslands has increased in recent years. We assessed sound levels near a 36-turbine wind energy facility in a contiguous grassland in Brown County, Nebraska, USA, using a grid sampling design. Greater prairie-chickens (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus), a bird species of special conservation concern, occupy the landscape near the wind facility. We evaluated the variation in wind turbine noise in the landscape at 296 Hz, the average peak frequency of the critically important courtship (‘boom’) vocalization of male prairie-chickens. The levels of ambient sounds were affected by ordinal day (β = −0.0752, SE = 0.0073) and wind speed (β = 1.1679, SE = 0.0419). Sound levels (dB) at the wind facility were affected by distance to the nearest turbine (β = 0.6917, SE = 0.0111). Sound levels increased during the breeding season (ordinal day: β = 0.0166, SE = 0.0028), during the day (time of day: β = 0.0035, SE = 0.0015), and at higher wind speeds (β = 1.1929, SE = 0.0261). Sound levels were higher downwind from the facility (wind direction: β = 0.9914, SE = 0.1691) and at sites that were within the viewshed of turbines (topography: β = 0.3819, SE = 0.0824). At 100 m from the turbines, under average temporal, landscape, and wind conditions, wind turbine noise at 296 Hz was 25 dB above the ambient sound level. At 500 m from the turbines, wind turbine noise at 296 Hz was 16 dB above the ambient sound level. Our results demonstrate the variation of wind turbine noise in the soundscape and suggest a protocol for evaluating effects of wind turbine sound on sound-sensitive wildlife.

A smart curtailment approach for reducing bat fatalities and curtailment time at wind energy facilities.

The development and expansion of wind energy is considered a key global threat to bat populations. Bat carcasses are being found underneath wind turbines across North and South America, Eurasia, Africa, and the Austro-Pacific. However, relatively little is known about the comparative impacts of techniques designed to modify turbine operations in ways that reduce bat fatalities associated with wind energy facilities. This study tests a novel approach for reducing bat fatalities and curtailment time at a wind energy facility in the United States, then compares these results to operational mitigation techniques used at other study sites in North America and Europe. The study was conducted in Wisconsin during 2015 using a new system of tools for analyzing bat activity and wind speed data to make near real-time curtailment decisions when bats are detected in the area at control turbines (N=10) vs. treatment turbines (N=10). The results show that this smart curtailment approach (referred to asTurbine Integrated Mortality Reduction, TIMR) significantly reduced fatality estimates fortreatment turbines relative to control turbines for pooled species data, and for each of fivespecies observed at the study site: pooled data (-84.5%); eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis, -82.5%); hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus, -81.4%); silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans, -90.9%); big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus, -74.2%); and little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus, -91.4%). The approach reduced power generation and estimated annual revenue at the wind energy facility by≤3.2% for treatment turbines relative to control turbines, and we estimate that the approach would have reduced curtailment time by 48% relative to turbines operated under a standard curtailment rule used in North America. This approach significantly reduced fatalities associated with all species evaluated, each of which has broad distributions in North America and different ecological affinities, several of which represent species most affected by wind development in North America. While we recognize that this approach needs to be validated in other areas experiencing rapid wind energy development, we anticipate that this approach has the potential to significantly reduce bat fatalities in other ecoregions and with other bat species assemblages in North America and beyond.

Analysis of blade fragment risk at a wind energy facility

AbstractAn analysis was performed to determine the risk posed by wind turbine fragments on roads and buildings at the National Wind Technology Center at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. The authors used a previously developed model of fragment trajectory and took into account the wind speed/direction distribution at the site and the probability of rotor failure. The site‐specific risk was assessed by determining the likelihood of impact and related consequences. For both the roads and buildings, the risk varied from low to routine, which was considered acceptable.

Activity Patterns of Bats During the Fall and Spring Along Ridgelines in the Central Appalachians

AbstractMany central Appalachian ridges offer high wind potential, making them attractive to future wind-energy development. Understanding seasonal and hourly activity patterns of migratory bat species may help to reduce fatalities at wind-energy facilities and provide guidance for the development of best management practices for bats. To examine hourly migratory bat activity patterns in the fall and spring in Virginia in an exploratory fashion with a suite of general temporal, environmental, and weather variables, we acoustically monitored bat activity on five ridgelines and side slopes from early September through mid-November 2015 and 2016 and from early March through late April 2016 and 2017. On ridges, bat activity decreased through the autumn sample period, but was more variable through the spring sample period. In autumn, migratory bat activity had largely ceased by mid-November. Activity patterns were species specific in both autumn and spring sample periods. Generally, migratory bat activity was negatively associated with hourly wind speeds but positively associated with ambient temperatures. These data provide further evidence that operational mitigation strategies at wind-energy facilities could help protect migratory bat species in the Appalachians; substantially slowing or locking wind turbine blade spin during periods of low wind speeds, often below where electricity is generated, and warm ambient temperatures may minimize mortality during periods of high bat activity.

Developing an efficient protocol for monitoring eagle fatalities at wind energy facilities.

Researchers typically conduct fatality monitoring to determine a wind energy facility’s direct impacts on wildlife. In the United States, wind energy impacts on eagles have received increased attention in recent years because eagle incidental take permits became available. Permit holders are required to conduct fatality monitoring to evaluate compliance with permitted eagle take. Our objective was to develop an efficient eagle fatality monitoring protocol with a quantifiable detection probability based on a stationary scanning search method. We conducted scanning searches for eagle carcasses at four wind energy facilities. We estimated searcher efficiency of the scanning search method using feathered turkey decoys as eagle carcass surrogates, used publicly available data on large raptor carcass distances from turbines to evaluate the proportion of carcasses expected to occur in searched areas, and estimated carcass persistence rates for game birds and raptors. These three bias adjustments were combined to estimate the overall probability of detection for the scanning search method. We found generally high searcher efficiency for the scanning search method, with 76% of decoys detected; however, detection decreased with distance and difficulty of visibility class. Mean carcass persistence time varied between 28 and 76 days for raptors and between three and nine days for game birds, showing that game birds do not persist as long as raptors. We estimated that 95% of large avian carcasses fall within 100 m of turbine bases, and 99% fall within 150 m. Using these estimates and assuming a 30-day search interval for all facility turbines, we estimated that the probability of detecting a large raptor carcass using the scanning search method at a wind facility ranged from 0.50 to 0.69. Our research suggests a monitoring program that uses scanning searches can be a cost-effective approach for gathering data necessary to meet incidental eagle take permit requirements.

Echolocation activity of migratory bats at a wind energy facility: testing the feeding-attraction hypothesis to explain fatalities

As development of wind energy facilities continues, questions of why fatalities of migrating insectivorous bats occur at turbines still remain. Numerous hypotheses have been proposed, including a feeding-attraction hypothesis that suggests bats may be attracted to insects congregating near turbine nacelles. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed echolocation calls of hoary (Lasiurus cinereus) and silver-haired (Lasionycteris noctivagans) bats recorded over 72 nights at a wind energy facility in Southern Alberta, Canada. We recorded calls at 3 heights: 67 m at turbine nacelles, 30 m at meteorological towers, and ground level at turbines and meteorological towers. We used feeding buzzes as indicators of foraging behavior. We compared the occurrence of feeding buzzes across heights, and between turbines and meteorological towers to test the prediction that if bats are attracted to turbines for foraging, there will be a greater proportion of feeding buzzes at turbines, and in particular, at nacelle height. We found no significant evidence that foraging rates were higher at nacelle height compared to 30 m or ground level, or between turbines and meteorological towers for either species. For silver-haired bats, foraging activity was greater at meteorological towers, and in particular, at 30 m height. These results do not support the feeding-attraction hypothesis for silver-haired or hoary bats, and suggest that while some bats forage in the vicinity of wind turbines, they are not specifically attracted to turbines to feed.

A Large Eddy Simulation-Actuator Line Model framework to simulate a scaled wind energy facility and its application

Wind energy has become a mature technology in the past decade. Nevertheless, in order to continue its growth and development, there are still open challenges like wind farm control to maximize power production, to mitigate loads and for active power control. Several strategies, from physical experimentation to numerical simulation, have been developed to do research in this field. The aim of the present paper is to present results of a validated numerical method applied to the simulation of a well known state of the art experimental setup. Different setups subject to an atmospheric boundary layer like inflow condition are simulated, from a stand-alone model wind turbine without/with torque controller, to three model wind turbines with two yaw settings. An acceptable agreement is obtained between the experimental data and the numerical results, showing a potential complementary approach between physical and numerical simulation.

The auditory attributes of Golden Eagles: Do Golden (Aquila chrysaetos) and Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) share the same auditory space?

According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2018), fatalities associated with wind turbine collisions have been reported for more than 200 bird species. Furthermore, based on statistical models of industry growth it has been suggested that as many as 1.4 million bird fatalities/year could be realized if the Department of Energy (DOE) wind energy goals are achieved; i.e., wind energy supplying 20% of total U.S. energy needs by 2030. Although passerine bird fatalities are most commonly reported, raptors that hunt by day, including bald and golden eagles, are the second most frequent casualties of turbine collisions. To address this concern, deterrence protocols designed to discourage eagles from encroaching into wind energy facility air spaces and thereby constrain the degree of risk to which birds are exposed are under investigation. As part of an effort to guide development of acoustic deterrence protocols, we report that the responsive frequency range of golden eagles is similar to that reported for bald eagles; upper and lower frequency limits of hearing are approximately 6.0 and 0.3 kHz, respectively. Suprathreshold response profiles measured in golden eagles exhibit standard features that will be compared with those of bald eagles. [Work supported by DOE grant #DE-EE0007881.]

Resource Availability May Not Be a Useful Predictor of Migratory Bat Fatalities or Activity at Wind Turbines

A better understanding of the ultimate mechanisms driving bat fatalities at wind turbines (i.e., the reason why bats are coming in close proximity to wind turbines) could inform more effective impact reduction strategies. One hypothesis is that bats come into close proximity to turbines due to existing resources (e.g., roosting sites) in the immediate area. Thus, if resource hotspots for bats could be identified in areas proposed for wind energy development, then fatalities could be reduced by siting turbines away from such hotspots. To explore this, we conducted a resource mapping exercise at a 48 km2 wind energy facility in north-central Texas. We mapped known resources (such as water sources, roosting sites, foraging sites, and commuting routes) for the 6 bat species present and compared resource availability with observed fatalities and acoustic activity. Although resource mapping identified concentrations of known resources for all species, it did not predict bat activity or fatalities. For example, Lasiurus cinereus and Lasiurus borealis comprised >90% of the fatalities, yet we found no positive relationship between resource availability and fatalities or acoustic activity for either species. Furthermore, up to 33% of these fatalities occurred at turbines without known resources within 200 m of the turbines, demonstrating that the fine-scale distribution of resources may not effectively inform turbine siting for these two migratory species. The challenge, therefore, remains to determine why bats during the migratory season are coming in close proximity with wind turbines.

Developing a wind energy potential map on a regional scale using GIS and multi-criteria decision methods: the case of Cadiz (south of Spain)

This paper focuses on the combined use of geographical information systems and multi-criteria decision methods when developing a decision support model in order to determine the most favourable sites for the installation of wind turbines on a regional scale. This study differs from others in three ways: (1) it analyses two distinct scenarios (depending on whether major or minor constraints, as defined in the existing literature, are applied); (2) the area under study, Cadiz, already has an extensive network of wind-generating facilities; and (3) this study analyses at length areas where installation is not suitable. The methodology is proven to be a valid and appropriate tool for identifying potential areas for wind-energy facilities on a regional scale for both planners and investors. The model is proved to be useful for planning and evaluating phases: for example, it helps to outline criteria which can be used to define sectors where the number of suitable areas for wind-energy facilities can be increased, as well as locations where repowering might be a suitable alternative.

Resolving environmental effects of wind energy

Concerns for potential wildlife impacts resulting from land‐based and offshore wind energy have created challenges for wind project development. Research is not always adequately supported, results are neither always readily accessible nor are they satisfactorily disseminated, and so decisions are often made based on the best available information, which may be missing key findings. The potential for high impacts to avian and bat species and marine mammals have been used by wind project opponents to stop, downsize, or severely delay project development. The global nature of the wind industry—combined with the understanding that many affected species cross‐national boundaries, and in many cases migrate between continents—also points to the need to collaborate on an international level. The International Energy Agency (IEA) Wind Technology Collaborative Programs facilitates coordination on key research issues. IEA Wind Task 34—WREN: Working Together to Resolve Environmental Effects of Wind Energy–is a collaborative forum to share lessons gained from field research and modeling, including management methods, wildlife monitoring methods, best practices, study results, and successful approaches to mitigating impacts and addressing the cumulative effects of wind energy on wildlife.WREN develops products such as white papers, fact sheets, and short science summaries, and is involved in a number of activities including hosting a webinar series and outreach and information dissemination through participation in meetings, workshops, and conferences to increase and expand the knowledge base pertaining to wildlife challenges at wind energy facilities. This information is available on WREN Hub, hosted on the Tethys website.This article is categorized under: Wind Power > Climate and Environment