Victim Willingness Research Articles

How crime severity predicts victim willingness to meet the offender.

How crime severity predicts victim willingness to meet the offender.

Supplemental Material for How Crime Severity Predicts Victim Willingness to Meet the Offender

Supplemental Material for How Crime Severity Predicts Victim Willingness to Meet the Offender

The illogic of plausible deniability: why proxy conflict in cyberspace may no longer pay

Abstract Cyber proxies—whether mercenaries, patriotic zealots, pranksters, or simply allies of convenience—are thought to be widespread. By outsourcing to proxies, this logic goes, a host government can plausibly deny its involvement in operations that advance its military and foreign policy aims. This presents central challenge to empirical researchers. If the value of proxies derives from their deniability, this same quality should mean that implausibly deniable types—the types sponsors supposedly wish to avoid—receive disproportionate attention in data and discourse. Accordingly, proxy activity appears to have flagged across several widely used datasets, depending on how the data are parsed. Do proxies still pay? A formal model is used to hypothesize about how new norms of attribution (specifically, the willingness of victims to make accusations on the basis of circumstantial evidence) can encourage capable states to insource more than they outsource. In the model, victims have the power to decide whether denials are plausible. “Usual suspects” who learn that they will take the heat regardless have fewer incentives to rely on proxies. Empirical evidence on insourcing patterns offers backdoor support for this proposition. The findings should decrease our confidence in plausible deniability as a logic for why states outsource to proxies. The paper joins an emerging body of research that has questioned the role of plausible deniability in covert action, including cyber conflict.

After the gun: examining police visits and intimate partner violence following incidents involving a firearm.

Laws have been enacted to keep firearms out of the hands of abusers. In this study, we examined one such effort-removal of a firearm at the scene of intimate partner violence (IPV)-to assess the subsequent occurrence and number of IPV incidents responded to by police and subsequent risk of injury to the victim. Using the 28,977 IPV calls in one large U.S. city to which officers responded during the 2013 calendar year, we identified 220 first-time incidents in which offenders used (i.e., brandished, pistol whipped, shot) a pistol, revolver, rifle, or shotgun. Officers reported removing a firearm from 52 (24%) of the offenders. After using full propensity score matching to control for potential confounders, logistic and Poisson regressions were used to assess differences between those from whom a firearm was removed and those whose firearm was not removed. Firearm removal at the scene of an IPV incident appears to increase the likelihood of subsequent IPV reports to police and suggestive evidence that subsequent injury to the victim might increase as well. The offender shifting from threats with a firearm to physical violence and a change (an increase as well as a decrease) in victim willingness to summon police may account for the findings.

Rape Crimes: Are Victims' Acute Psychological Distress and Perceived Social Support Associated With Police Case Decision and Victim Willingness to Participate in the Investigation?

This study examined level of acute psychological distress and perceived social support in 64 victims of rape and the association with police case decisions and victims' willingness to participate in the investigation. The results of independent-sample t tests revealed that victims' unwillingness to participate in the investigation was significantly associated with a higher level of psychological distress in the acute phase following the assault. The results suggest that victims of rape who disengage with the police investigation may do so because of a high level of acute psychological distress. Clinical implications are discussed.

The role of the third party in trust repair process

To examine the role of third parties in trust repair processes, this study uses a policy-capturing design. The third party's tactics (persuasion, guarantee) and characteristics (relational closeness between third party and victim, power of third party) relate strongly and positively to trust repair and specifically to a victim's willingness to reconcile with a trust violator, which ultimately leads to continuance of collaboration intentions. In addition, persuasion is more effective than guarantees in this process. The effects of tactics and characteristics also interact to influence the outcomes. This article concludes with some practical implications of these findings and recommendations for future research.

What about Men: Questioning the Deterring Efficacy of Kenya Protection against Domestic Violence Act (2015) in Addressing Violence against Men in Kenya

This paper seeks to analyze the efficiency of Kenya’s ‘Protection Against Domestic Violence Act’ (hereafter PADV) in deterring ongoing violence against men. It intends to argue that the Act, provides little or no deterrence effect based on the historical definition of violence which has been grounded in looking at women as victims rather than perpetrators, second even though the Act is proper in intent, the cause of violence such poverty and culturally held dogmas impede its implementation and lastly the lack of willingness of victims to report or prosecute renders it ineffective. Thus, it recommends that these factors should be tackled in order to make the deterrence effect of the legislation a reality. To make these claims, the paper begins with a definition of domestic violence, followed by a brief outlook on international human rights framework and then it provides a brief perspective into the situation in Kenya and the legislative framework. The PADV is looked as part of this framework and its efficacy analyzed followed by a conclusion containing recommendation/s.

Crime Trends and the Elasticity of Evil: Has a Broadening View of Violence Affected Our Statistical Indicators?

Macro-social theories posit that societies become more civil as they modernize. An open question is whether these changes affect major social indicators of crime. To produce level and change estimates, national data collection systems employ safeguards to promote stability. Cultural changes, though, might affect these systems in more subtle ways by affecting what citizens view as criminal violence and how these behaviors are recounted in crime surveys and reported to police. Three subclasses of violence appear most susceptible: rape and sexual assault, domestic violence, and lesser forms of violence such as verbal threats. Findings are strongest that changing cultural definitions have affected official statistics for domestic violence. Rape and sexual assault also have shown changes in the willingness of victims to report to the police. Evidence does not indicate that the cultural definition of lesser violence has changed in a way that has affected trends in official statistics. Estimating change over time is a key reason statistical systems employ safeguards to remove shifting views of violence. These safeguards may limit an accurate view of victimization risk and exposure. Balancing the need for stability with a desire to capture emerging crimes and risks requires developing careful systematic processes for reviewing and updating national crime statistics.

A preliminary mapping of individual, relational, and social factors that impede disclosure of childhood sexual abuse

Uncovering the pathways to disclosures of child sexual abuse (CSA) and the factors influencing the willingness of victims to talk about the abuse is paramount to the development of powerful practice and policy initiatives. Framed as a long interview method utilizing a grounded theory approach to analyze data, the objective of the current study was to provide a preliminary mapping of the barriers to CSA disclosures through an ecological systemic lens, from a sample of 67 male and female CSA adult survivors, all of whom had recently received counselling services. The current project led to the identification of three broad categories of barriers that were each comprised of several subthemes, namely: Barriers from Within (internalized victim-blaming, mechanisms to protect oneself, and immature development at time of abuse); Barriers in Relation to Others (violence and dysfunction in the family, power dynamics, awareness of the impact of telling, and fragile social network); and Barriers in Relation to the Social World (labelling, taboo of sexuality, lack of services available, and culture or time period). This study points to the importance of using a broad ecological framework to understand the factors that inhibit disclosure of CSA, as barriers to disclosure do not constrain solely the victims. Results are discussed in light of their implications for research, prevention and intervention programs, and social policies and media campaigns, as the burden is on the larger community to create a climate of safety and transparency that makes the telling of CSA possible.

Victim Willingness to Report Crime to Police: Does Procedural Justice or Outcome Matter Most?

Research has shown that procedural justice is an important predictor of victims’ satisfaction with the criminal justice system. What remains relatively unclear, however, is whether procedural justice is more important to victims than other instrumental factors, such as the outcome favorability of their encounters with police. Some studies find that victims are more satisfied with the criminal justice system when they have received a favorable outcome, while others show that procedural justice elements dominate their concerns. To date, only three studies have investigated this issue in the context of victims’ willingness to cooperate with the police. Again, however, the results have been inconclusive. The present study utilizes survey data collected from a representative sample of 1,204 Australians to show that the effect of procedural justice on victims’ willingness to report crime to police is context specific. For some victim types, procedural justice is more important, while for other victim types, instrumental factors dominate their decision to report crime.

Ambivalent sexism, empathy and law enforcement attitudes towards partner violence against women among male police officers

Police attitudes towards partner violence against women (PVAW) can play an important role in their evaluation and responses to this type of violence. The present study aims to examine ambivalent sexism and empathy as determinants of male police officers' law enforcement attitudes towards PVAW. The study sample was composed by 404 male police officers. Results suggested that male police officers scoring low in benevolent sexism expressed a general preference for unconditional law enforcement (i.e. regardless of the victim's willingness to press charges against the offender), whereas those scoring high in benevolent sexism expressed a preference for conditional law enforcement (i.e. depending on the willingness of the victim to press charges against the offender). Results also showed that police officers scoring high in empathy and low in hostile sexism were those who expressed a general preference for unconditional law enforcement. The presence of sexist attitudes and low levels of empathy among some police officers, and their influence on law enforcement attitudes, highlights not only the importance of specific training, but also the need to pay attention to the selection process of police officers dealing with PVAW.

The Influence of Forensic Evidence on the Case Outcomes of Rape Incidents

The study focuses on the influence of forensic evidence on the processing of rape incidents. It utilizes a prospective analysis of official record data that followed cases from the time of police report to final criminal disposition. The results indicate that forensic evidence is auxiliary, occasional, and non-determinative in the majority of rape cases. Victim willingness to testify and injuries to the victim are the strongest predictors of case outcomes. Additionally, the study finds that the relationship between the victim and suspect does not affect the likelihood of charging or conviction.

Domestic violence: The facts, the issues, the future

This paper initially describes the organisation of the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), then deals with the volume of work undertaken by the CPS, before focusing on domestic violence. Although criminal, it is only in the last decade that domestic violence has been taken seriously as a criminal justice issue, with many offences being previously brushed under the carpet as a so-called ‘domestic’. Statistics of the effects of domestic abuse on children are provided. Sexual assault often accompanies domestic violence, which can also end in death. It is still thought that a large number of domestic violence offences are not reported to the police. Stalking is a related problem. While there have been important steps forward, and the criminal justice system is working hard to address this issue, more still needs to be done. Some ongoing issues include the willingness of victims to attend court and the pressure they might come under to retract statements. However, new and more successful methods of gathering evidence are cited in Norfolk and Suffolk, where prosecutions are now well above the national average.

Calling the Police in Instances of Family Violence

This study examines the impact of the victim–offender relationship on the willingness of victims to call the police in family violence incidents, with particular attention to the life stages of victims. Different stages of life have an impact on the decision to report criminal victimization. Family composition and the roles of family members change over life stages. When children are young, adults in the household have child-rearing responsibilities that shape the interpersonal dynamics in the household. When children approach adulthood and parents age, the parents may become more dependent on the children in a variety of ways. These changes in family composition and organization across life stages can affect the normative and cost–benefit considerations in deciding whether to call the police or not. Yet studies of responses to family violence have virtually ignored the influence of life stage on the decision to call the police. In addition, most studies of victims of family violence focus on marital or intimate relationships and fail to examine any other relationships in the family. It is not clear whether the findings from the general literature on domestic violence are applicable to intergenerational family violence. This article examines the impact of a broader range of victim–offender relationships across three age groups representing different life stages. The authors find that the factors explaining victims’ decisions to report victimization to the police vary across life stages.

Deviant Lifestyles and the Reporting of Physical Victimization to Police

This study examines the role that deviance plays in reducing the willingness of victims of violence to report to the authorities. Using data from several thousand individuals in the United States, the author found conditional support for the deviance/reporting link. For instance, victims using drugs were no more or less likely to report than those who did not use drugs. But if they were high or drunk during the victimization, they were less likely to report.

Policing rape in South Africa

abstract It is well-established that the progress of any reported case through the criminal justice system reflects a highly selective process of elimination, often referred to as ‘attrition’. The fate of any reported rape complaint is subject to the police's significant discretionary power in the processing of complaints. This Article based on research conducted by the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, the Medical Research Council, and Tshwaranang Legal Advocacy Centre, examines the police investigation of rape in the Gauteng Province. It examines how the SAPS fare in the investigation and processing of rape cases in terms of factors identified by international research as crucial for the successful prosecution of rape. These include: the collection of physical evidence; injuries, victim resistance and the use of force or weapons; witness statements; the victim's willingness and ability to assist with the case; the relationship between the victim and perpetrator; and the suspect's prior convictions. The Article ends with concrete recommendations around the police investigation of rape cases, in terms of both their technical management of the process and their sensitive handling of the victims of sexual offences.

Contextual determinants of juveniles’ willingness to report crimes

A growing body of literature on the willingness of victims to report crimes focuses on the context in which crimes occur. Recently, a socio-ecological model has been developed from which hypotheses on the effects of social context on reporting can be derived. This study tests these hypotheses using a vignette experiment, in which 499 juveniles read a description of a violent incident and answered questions on their willingness to report to the police or to an employee of the organization they belong to (here, their school). The effects of three factors were studied: the location of the crime, the extent to which victim and offender knew each other, and whether or not the offender was part of the same organization as the victim. Results show that the willingness to contact the police is lower when the incident takes place within the organization (cf. in the public domain) and when the offender is well known (cf. vaguely known), and that there is an additional negative effect when the incident takes place within the organization and the offender also belongs to the organization. The willingness to contact an employee is higher when the offender belongs to the organization and when the incident takes place within the organization. Implications of these findings and the advantages and limitations of the vignette approach are discussed.

Between the Devil and the Deep-Blue Sea: Conceptualising Victims' Experiences of Policing in Domestic Violence in the Singaporean Context

In contextualising victims' experiences of policing in domestic violence situations in Singapore, two extreme but interrelated sets of responses have been observed. At one end of the continuum, criminal justice sanctions are strictly contingent upon victim willingness to initiate criminal proceedings against the perpetrator, and at the other, victims' rights, needs and preferences seem to be usurped by the justice system regardless of victims' choice. Neither of these positions takes victims' interests into account. Nor do they stem from an understanding of the sociocultural, economic and structural circumstances in which victims experienced violence, and continued to experience it, long after a police intervention. Data from the research revealed that criminalisation as an ideological and legally practical tool was not only rendered ineffective but irrelevant to the experiences of women in the Singaporean context.Two factors account for this phenomenon. First, the absence of support structures to achieve criminalisation and address victims' needs in the aftermath of criminalisation; second, the authoritative, paternalistic and patriarchal state impedes processes aimed at the empowerment of women victims.

The Road to Reconciliation: Antecedents of Victim Willingness to Reconcile Following a Broken Promise

The antecedents of victim willingness to reconcile a professional relationship following an incident involving a broken promise were examined in terms of offender tactics (i.e., nature of apology, timeliness of reparative act, sincerity) and relationship characteristics (i.e., nature of past relationship, probability of future violation) using a within- and between-subjects policy-capturing design. Relatively speaking, relationship characteristics were as strongly related to willingness to reconcile as offender tactics. Furthermore, we found moderating effects of magnitude of violation on the willingness to reconcile a relationship following a trust violation. In particular, nature of past relationship was weighed more heavily, whereas probability of future violation was weighed less heavily when the magnitude of the violation was greater. Practical implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Discourse of Survival: Building Families Free of Unhealthy Relationships

Victims of familial or interpersonal abuse are often trapped in silence. Issues of the victim's willingness and ability to disclose, contexts of telling, as well as victim-listener interaction, have great significance on the outcome of the victim's storytelling experience. In this study, 12 abuse survivors were interviewed and narrated their experiences of relational abuse and survivorship. Participants included residents of a shelter for victims of domestic violence and abuse as well as self-selected volunteers. The victims' narratives were audio-recorded, transcribed, coded for emergent themes, and reanalyzed for styles of discourse. Results indicate two major themes: disempowerment, which perpetuates silence, and empowerment, which facilitates change in the victims' lives. Narrating their experiences requires victims to confront constraints that prevent empowerment, including conformity to roles, a false hope the abuser will change, and the social construction of victimization. Telling such stories can also represent an important means of achieving healthier family relationships.