Wildlife Veterinarians Research Articles

Evidence of leptospirosis in the kidneys and serum of feral swine (Sus scrofa) in the United States.

Leptospirosis is the most widespread zoonosis in humans worldwide. In the United States, widespread detection of antibodies to leptospirosis have been identified in feral swine (Sus scrofa) with the highest detection of serovars, Bratislava, Icterohaemorrhagiae, and Pomona. Over the past few years, feral swine populations have expanded their geographical range and distribution in the United States with reports in at least 39 of 50 states. Since feral swine serve as reservoirs for serovars that can infect humans, it is important to understand the risk of transmission. In order to learn more about the probability that feral swine shed infectious leptospires, we collected kidneys and paired serum when possible from 677 feral swine in 124 counties of 29 states. These counties had previously been identified as antibody positive for Leptospira interrogans serovars Bratislava, Canicola, Grippotyphosa, Hardjo, Icterohaemorrhagiae or Pomona. Although exposure to these same six serovars of leptospirosis continued to be high (53% overall) in the counties we sampled, we detected leptospiral DNA in only 3·4% of feral swine kidneys tested. Based on these results, it appears that although feral swine can serve as a source of infection to humans, especially in those who are more likely to encounter them directly such as wildlife biologists, veterinarians, and hunters, the risk may be relatively low. However, further studies to examine the relationship between leptospiral shedding in the urine and kidneys in addition to culturing the organism are recommended in order to better understand the risk associated with feral swine.

Whole Blood Cholinesterase Activity in 20 Species of Wild Birds.

Clinical signs of organophosphate and carbamate intoxication in wild birds can be mistaken for those of other diseases, thus potentially delaying diagnosis and implementation of life-saving treatment. The objective of this study was to determine the reference interval for blood cholinesterase activity in 20 different wild avian species from 7 different orders, thereby compiling a reference database for wildlife veterinarians. Blood was collected from birds not suspected of having organophosphate or carbamate toxicosis, and the modified Michel method, which determines the change in blood pH that directly correlates with cholinesterase activity, was used to measure blood cholinesterase levels. Results of change in blood pH values ranged from 0.11 for the white-tailed eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) to 0.90 for the honey buzzard ( Pernis apivorus ). The results showed that even within the same family, interspecies differences in normal cholinesterase blood activity were not uncommon. The findings emphasized the importance of determining reference intervals for avian blood cholinesterase activity at the species level.

Immobilization and Anaesthesia in Asiatic Lions (Panthera leo persica)

Asiatic lions (Panthera Leo Persica) and hybrid lions are often subjected to chemical immobilization and anaesthesia for various measures related to conservation and elective and emergency surgical procedures by veterinarians. Management of long term anaesthesia has been carried out under using injectable anaesthetics and ancillary drugs which pose problems due to change in depth of anaesthesia and alteration in homeostasis leading to stress and stress related complications. Significantly higher dose (p < 0.05) of xylazine and ketamine was required in sub-adult lions (1.08±0.10 and 2.70±0.26 mg/kg body weight) than adult lions (1.06±0.30 and 2.64±0.08 mg/kg body weight) for immobilization. Similarly lions required higher dose (p < 0.05) of xylazine and ketamine (1.08±0.07 and 2.71±0.16 mg/kg body weight) than lioness (1.04±0.40 and 2.61±0.10 mg/kg body weight) for immobilization irrespective of body weights. Ketamine and propofol (2 &1 mg/kg iv) could be used as induction agents. Propofol induction was safe for oral digital palpation of glottis and intubation. Isoflurane provided smooth maintenance. This work is useful for wildlife veterinarians.

Michael Schröpel – Bemerkungen zum Tiergärtner und Zoodirektor, Schriftsteller und Künstler, Primatenkundler und Ethologen aus Anlass der Vollendung seines 70. Lebensjahres

The selection and the use of antiparasitic remedies in the animals in zoological gardens and those bred in captivity present one of the challenges to the wildlife veterinarians. The latter have to be flexible enough in the choice of medicines and schemes of treatment of the animals they take care of. The present study is aimed at adding more information in that respect. A number of cases of ivermectin treating of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish bred in captivity are presented in it. The tolerance to the drug in the different animals, species of the parasites influenced by it, dosages, schemes of applying and some other peculiarities in the system animals – diseases – anthelmintic treatments are discussed.

Experience in the Ivermectin Treatment of Internal Parasites in Zoo and Captive Wild Animals: A Review

The selection and the use of antiparasitic remedies in the animals in zoological gardens and those bred in captivity present one of the challenges to the wildlife veterinarians. The latter have to be flexible enough in the choice of medicines and schemes of treatment of the animals they take care of. The present study is aimed at adding more information in that respect. A number of cases of ivermectin treating of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish bred in captivity are presented in it. The tolerance to the drug in the different animals, species of the parasites influenced by it, dosages, schemes of applying and some other peculiarities in the system animals – diseases – anthelmintic treatments are discussed.

The Department of Pathology at the German Primate Center from 1973 to 1999

Abstract. The Department of Pathology was the first scientific unit established at the German Primate Center (DPZ) already in its planning phase. At that early time the planning of administrative duties was also necessary, including the financial framework of the laboratory equipment of the then-envisioned three departments of pathology, virology and physiology, in order to get the DPZ off the ground. Otherwise the functions of the Department of Pathology were both service duties and scientific evaluations. The service functions after the establishment of the DPZ included pathological, bacteriological and parasitological examinations/surveys and the veterinary care of nonhuman primates at the DPZ and other primate colonies. On an international level its service functions were reflected by the collaboration within the Office International de Epizooties (OIE, Paris) (Dollinger et al., 1996) and the Infectious Diseases Working Group of the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, and the establishment of a bacteriological laboratory in Iquitos, Peru, at the request of the Pan American Health Organization. Parallel to those administrative and service duties to the DPZ and to international communities, the different scientific activities started, which in a pathology department always are a combination of service and research. They are documented by a total of almost 120 publications, including 3 doctoral theses and 116 publications by the author from 1973 to 1999; the most important ones are summarized in the following examples.

Dolphins are exhalation champs

Every air-breathing marine mammal faces a multitude of challenges as it dives beneath the waves: carbon dioxide and nitrogen accumulation in the blood can cause unconsciousness, intoxication and decompression sickness, while low internal pressures in rigid lungs can force blood into the delicate airways. Yet, whales, dolphins and seals rarely seem to suffer these ill effects. Andreas Fahlman from Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi, USA, says, ‘It had been assumed that the respiratory systems of all marine mammals are similar, with a stiff upper airway and collapsible lungs’. However, there was little evidence to support the assumption and Fahlman was repeatedly told that the measurements couldn't be made for various reasons, including the incredibly high flow rates generated by exhaling dolphins.That was until Fahlman met Micah Brodsky, a consultant and wildlife veterinarian with an interest in mechanical engineering. Brodsky decided to take on the challenge of designing a small and portable pneumotachometer (air flow meter) that could be used to measure flows in excess of 200 l s−1 in less than 100 ms and would survive corrosive salt water. After 9 months of development with the help of Trevor Austin, and knowing that the preliminary measurements couldn't be made in the wild, Fahlman and Brodsky travelled to Dolphin Quest Oahu, to work with bottlenose dolphins. Fahlman recalls that the sympathetic relationship between the dolphins and their trainers, led by Julie Rocho-Levine, was also essential for their success. However, even though the dolphins were trained to respond to their trainers’ directions, they only participated voluntarily, ‘Which allowed us to test important physiological variables with no stress to the animals’, says Fahlman.Gently placing the pneumotachometer over each dolphin's blow hole as it waited patiently in the water, Fahlman, Brodsky and Greg Levine measured the airway pressures and airflows as the animals breathed normally and heavily. They were impressed to see that the dolphins could inhale at flow rates of up to 33.4 l s−1; however, when they measured the flow rate as the dolphins exhaled, they were astonished to register flows of up to 137.6 l s−1. ‘The cetaceans are the true champions of respiratory physiology’, says Fahlman, putting the dolphins’ performance into context by saying, ‘The maximal flow rates are at least twice, and probably three times, higher than those in the terrestrial champion, the horse’. And when the team analysed the airflows, they realised that the animals could exchange almost all of the air in their lungs in a single breath: ‘Their vital capacity is very high’, says Fahlman.Next, Fahlman and Steven Loring tested how rigid the dolphins’ lungs were by calculating their compliance, and they were delighted to confirm Per Scholander's 70 year old hypothesis that the lungs are compressible: rigid human lungs register a compliance of 0.08 cmH2O−1 while the dolphins’ compressible lungs had a compliance of 0.31 cmH2O−1. Fahlman also measured the amount of oxygen that the animals inhaled and exhaled and the carbon dioxide produced to calculate the animals’ metabolic rates on a breath-by-breath basis. He explains that measurements like this could directly impact dolphin health. ‘Lung function testing may be a novel way to investigate respiratory health of cetaceans under human care and we may be able to provide real-time information about oxygenation state and how animals are doing during a mass-stranding to help save animals’, says Fahlman.So, having overcome many technical challenges and measured the immense airflows generated by breathing dolphins, Fahlman is keen to study other cetaceans to learn more about their respiratory physiology and the effects of beaching on stranded animals.

Wildlife veterinarians rabies vaccination in Chile: a survey

Rabies is a lethal but preventable disease. Knowing the extent of immunization coverage among at risk populations, may help to guide immunization efforts, as well as increase the effectiveness of rabies control and prevention programs. To determine the proportion of wildlife veterinarians in Chile, as part of a group at risk of rabies transmission. An electronic survey was sent to wildlife veterinarians in Chile. We found that veterinarians in Chile work mainly with carnivores and deer compared to other mammals (p < 0.001), rarely works with bats (p = 0.6572). Most of the participants had been bitten by domestic animals, while a lesser proportion (29%) by wild animals. Most of the participants never received rabies vaccination (53%), while within the group that had started a rabies vaccination scheme, a substantial proportion (39%) did not complete it. Identify the vaccination status of risk groups is important for infectious disease control and prevention programs, as this information helps to identify priority groups during outbreaks or vaccine scarcity. Wildlife veterinarians in Chile are at risk of rabies transmission and should be included in rabies prevention programs, especially considering their vulnerability and lack of biosafety practices. Increasing education in rabies epidemiology and prevention is urgently needed in veterinary faculties in Chile.

Piometra em uma leoa (Panthera leo): relato de caso

A piometra é uma infecção aguda ou crônica do útero que ocorre frequentemente em cadelas não castradas, podendo também ocorrer em gatas domésticas e selvagens, sendo poucos os estudos relacionados à piometra em grandes felídeos. O objetivo deste relato foi descrever um caso de piometra em uma leoa (Panthera leo) de cativeiro, as lesões de necropsia e histológicas, bem como os resultados da análise microbiológica. Uma leoa com aproximadamente 23 anos, pertencente a um criadouro conservacionista de Santa Maria-RS, foi encontrada morta pela manhã em seu recinto. Após coleta de dados, procedeu-se à necropsia e à coleta de material para análise histopatológica e bacteriológica. A análise microbiológica revelou predomínio das bactérias Streptococcus sp. e Escherichia coli no conteúdo purulento do útero, caracterizando como piometra, e a bactéria predominante em plasma, fígado e medula óssea foi E. coli. De acordo com o laudo histopatológico, as alterações observadas nessa leoa sugerem um quadro de septicemia grave, sendo a origem do foco infeccioso bacteriano, provavelmente, a piometra. Considera-se importante chamar a atenção dos médicos veterinários de animais selvagens para um diagnóstico precoce dessa doença, que é comum em cadelas, mas que pode acometer também felídeos selvagens e levá-los à morte.

Livestock movement and emerging zoonotic disease outbreaks: applying ecological, network, and sociocultural theories to assess the risk of Middle East respiratory syndrome from camel trade in Ethiopia and Egypt

BackgroundEmerging infectious diseases are associated with complex linkages within the broader ecosystem. Studying infectious disease among hosts (animals and humans), outside of the context of their environment, ignores the complexity in which hosts interact. We aimed to formulate a framework to study the effect of large livestock movement on the ecology of emerging zoonotic infectious disease in low-income and middle-income countries. Ultimately such a framework could identify points of intervention in livestock movement chains to reduce the risk of emerging diseases. As a test case, we use camel movement and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV).MethodsWe reviewed grey and peer-reviewed literature on camel husbandry and interviewed key stakeholders in Egypt and Ethiopia involved in public health research, animal husbandry, the camel trade, veterinary services for camels, and physicians. A multidisciplinary team consisting of wildlife biologists, anthropologists, epidemiologists, veterinarians, geographers, modellers, virologists, and health-care professionals from the USA, Egypt, and Ethiopia was assembled to propose the framework.FindingsA framework has been developed which highlights the associations between the complex linkages within the broader ecosystem: environment (flora, climate, pollution), animals (distribution and density of animals, interaction between humans, domesticated and wildlife animals), and human behavioural systems (socio-cultural and economic structures around animal husbandry and hunting, connectivity including market trade systems).InterpretationWhile there is an emphasis on interdisciplinary cooperation in the area of one health, this type of work has several challenges. A history of interdisciplinary work in zoonotic infectious disease is limited, in part, because of the lack of undergraduate and graduate curricula that provide training. Additionally the large teams required to conduct truly interdisciplinary work require sustained funding and such opportunities are rare.FundingNone.

Tooth wear, body mass index and management options for edentulous black flying-foxes (Pteropus alecto Gould) in the Townsville district, north Queensland, Australia.

We investigated the relationship between a body mass index and tooth wear in the black flying-fox (Pteropus alecto Gould) to provide guidance on management of edentulous individuals by wildlife carers and veterinarians. Flying-foxes brought into care because of injury were weighed, their forearms measured and the state of their teeth evaluated. Measurements were analysed by Chi-square, ANOVA, t-tests and regression to identify any relationship between the body mass index and the condition of canine and molar teeth, as well as in relation to sex and season. There was no statistically significant relationship between a bat's dentition state and the body mass index being used. In Townsville, the black flying-fox appears to experience a rapid decline in dental condition over time. Despite this, there is little indication that loss of teeth results in a decline in body condition. We attribute this to the dominance of floral foods in the bats' diet in Townsville and a lesser importance of hard fruit that requires intact dentition for consumption. Edentulousness on its own is not sufficient reason to euthanase black flying-foxes in either Townsville or similar relatively dry localities where blossom dominates the flying-fox diet.

Ventral dermatitis in rowi (Apteryx rowi) due to cutaneous larval migrans.

The rowi is a critically endangered species of kiwi. Young birds on a crèche island showed loss of feathers from the ventral abdomen and a scurfy dermatitis of the abdominal skin and vent margin. Histology of skin biopsies identified cutaneous larval migrans, which was shown by molecular sequencing to be possibly from a species of Trichostrongylus as a cause of ventral dermatitis and occasional ulcerative vent dermatitis. The predisposing factors that led to this disease are suspected to be the novel exposure of the rowi to parasites from seabirds or marine mammals due to the island crèche and the limited management of roost boxes. This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds. Severe and fatal complications of the investigation resulted in the death of eight birds of aspergillosis and pulmonary complications associated with the use of bark as a substrate in hospital. Another bird died of renal failure during the period of hospitalisation despite oral and intravenous fluid therapy. The initiating cause of the renal failure was not determined. These complications have the potential to undermine the working relationship between wildlife veterinarians and conservation managers. This case highlights that intensive conservation management can result in increased opportunities for novel routes of cross-species pathogen transmission.

Surveillance and Monitoring of White-Tailed Deer for Chronic Wasting Disease in the Northeastern United States

Abstract Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease that affects both wild and captive cervid populations. In the past 45 y, CWD has spread from northern Colorado to all bordering states, as well as the midwestern United States (Midwest) and northeastern United States (Northeast), Canada, and South Korea. Because CWD is a relatively new issue for wildlife management agencies in the Northeast, we surveyed a representative (e.g., cervid biologist, wildlife veterinarian) from 14 states to gain a better understanding of state-specific surveillance measures. Between 2002 and 2012, New York (37,093) and Pennsylvania (35,324) tested the greatest number of harvested white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus in the Northeast. Additionally, the 14 states surveyed have tested 121,730 harvested deer, or approximately 15,216/y, since CWD was first detected in 2005. The most common tissues used by agencies in the Northeast for testing were retropharyngeal lymph nodes, which have been determined to be the most reliable in detecting CWD in cervids. Understanding CWD surveillance efforts at a regional scale can help to provide guidance for the development of new surveillance plans or the improvement of existing ones. Furthermore, collaborations among state and regional agencies in the Northeast may attempt to identify deficiencies in surveillance by state or subregion.

LONG-TERM METHODS AND EFFECTS OF REMOTELY TREATING WILDLIFE WITH IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION

The development of sophisticated delivery equipment, as well as safer and more effective drugs, has made remote delivery of animal drugs a standard and readily available tool for wildlife professionals, veterinarians, ranchers, and animal control officers. In the 1980s, researchers began treating a wide variety of wildlife with injectable porcine zona pellucida immunocontraceptive vaccines. Remote delivery of immunocontraceptives has been proven effective at the individual and population level for wild horses and urban deer. However, it took only a short time at each study site to understand that each time an animal was treated with remotely delivered darts, it became more difficult to re-treat; researchers were required to adjust to the increased wariness of their targets. Multiyear vaccines will not reduce the need for researchers who can adapt to the many challenges of applying these nonlethal methods of population control in the field. Training, experience, and persistence are required for field personnel to adapt and develop new techniques for continued retreatment of previously treated free-ranging animals.

Botulism...Or Is It?

In August 2012, during routine surveys of Poplar Island, MD, shorebirds and ducks were found in varying stages of paralysis. Some birds were ‘wing walking,’ others could barely hold up their heads, some had lost function of the nictitans, and many more were dead. These clinical signs, combined with the location, climate, and water conditions, were highly suggestive of avian botulism. As biologists from the US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service teamed with the MD state wildlife veterinarian, Maryland Environmental Service, and staff and volunteers from Tri–State Bird Rescue &amp; Research to capture and care for the affected birds, laboratory tests suggested something besides botulism might be present. This presentation describes the combined efforts of these groups and six separate laboratories to unravel the mystery of this epornitic and to provide treatment to those birds rescued live.

Remote chemical injection: darting in practice

Remote chemical injection (RCI) is colloquially known as darting but can also include the use of pole syringes. Most commonly associated with zoo and wildlife veterinarians, these techniques are becoming...

Occupational zoonoses in zoo and wildlife veterinarians in India: A review

Zoos and biological parks are considered as a hub for public recreation and education. This is highlighted by the fact that visitors to the zoos are increasing year by year and they generate sizeable revenue. Veterinary professionals play a pivotal role in health management of wild animals in zoos and biological parks. Since veterinarians work in close contact with wild animals, there is a potential risk of transmission of zoonotic diseases from wild animals to humans and vice versa. There are approximately 1415 infectious agents causing diseases in humans, out of which 868 (61%) are known to be zoonotic in nature. It is also important to note that more than 70% of the emerging zoonotic diseases have wild animals as reservoir hosts. The major zoonotic diseases that are transmitted from wild animals to humans include rabies, anthrax, leptospirosis, Q-fever, psittacosis, hendra virus, nipah virus, herpes B encephalitis, toxoplasmosis, etc. Hence, it is imperative for veterinarians and zoo staff to be fully aware of the knowledge pertaining to the source, transmission, pathogenicity, treatment and control of zoonotic diseases. In this manuscript, we provide key information regarding zoonotic diseases and also recommend important measures for their control and prevention. The information provided here will be highly beneficial for personnel who work in close association with wild animals.

Falling through the Cracks: Shortcomings in the Collaboration between Biologists and Veterinarians and Their Consequences for Wildlife

Although biologists and veterinarians have shown considerable success in working together to address wildlife-related issues, including disease, chemical immobilization, reproductive biology, and conservation biology, examples of shared efforts to evaluate and ensure the welfare of study animals are mostly absent. I present the case that this deficiency arises primarily from a lack of mutual understanding between fields with respect to the other's training and experience in addressing animal welfare issues. In effect, each assumes that the final word on animal welfare rests with the other. The reality is, however, that neither field contains the knowledge and skills required to address animal welfare concerns alone. Nevertheless, wildlife researchers are increasingly encountering difficulties conducting research on wild animals because of opposition from stakeholders on the basis of animal welfare concerns. Further, a growing number of articles in the peer-reviewed scientific literature are reporting on potential biases in research results developing from the welfare impacts of widely used techniques, including methods of capturing and marking wildlife. By viewing animal welfare as a shared responsibility and combining their knowledge and skills, wildlife biologists and veterinarians have an opportunity to reform "invasive" wildlife research in a manner that is less harmful to the animals being studied, less likely to bias research results, and less objectionable to the stakeholders who ultimately influence or make decisions on how wildlife research is conducted.

Chemical and Physical Restraint of Wild Animals, A Training and Field Manual for African Species. 2nd Edition

This book is essential for the library of wildlife professionals who work with chemical or physical restraint of African wildlife species. This second edition is significantly improved over the first edition. Kock and Burroughs have edited and produced a book that succinctly addresses the relevant physiology, pharmacology, and human safety issues related to chemical restraint. While much of this information is also found in other sources, there are key sections that make this book a truly valuable resource for wildlife veterinarians and biologists. The chapter on the principles of chemical and physical restraint authored by Atkinson, Kock, and Meltzer is rich in observations, comments, and recommendations that can only come from years of field experience. The excellent photographs and illustrations provide the reader a visual reference for the induction phases of immobilization and the discussion of common causes of failures and adverse effects is written and illustrated based on experience rather than primarily literature review. The discussion of helicopter and fixed wing aircraft addresses differences in equipment, operating parameters, and safety that provide the uninitiated an important foundation to the subject. For non-African professionals, the section on individual species is a treasure, including excellent photographs to help distinguish many important African species on which restraint is used. This section is authored by Burroughs, Hofmeyer, Morkel, Kock, and Meltzer—all of whom are very experienced with African wildlife medicine and biology. Each wildlife species (arranged alphabetically) has a species description, notes on behavior, habitat, reproduction, the most common drugs used, and most importantly, valuable notes on distinctive restraint techniques used with that species. The authors’ note that gemsbok must be approached carefully is underscored by the comment that ‘‘they are very aggressive and may attempt to horn you’’ and is based on field experience. This kind of valuable information is provided throughout this section. This edition has an expanded section on carnivores, again with valuable but little-known tidbits of information such as the fact that large felids cannot resist the Calvin Klein fragrance, Obsession for MenH, and that this fragrance can be used as a lure for traps. One of the strongest expansions of this edition is the section on equipment. It is complete and comprehensive and provides valuable guidelines for assembling a working field box. Regulations concerning drugs and laws related to wildlife capture are focused on African wildlife. One shortcoming is the limitation to the use of etorphine or thiafentanil for ungulates; few alternative drugs and doses are mentioned. The addition of alternative drugs and doses would be a valuable addition to future editions. This resource is targeted for African readers but will be valuable for all wildlife professionals working with African species.

Exotic Animal Formulary, Fourth Edition

This is the fourth edition of Dr. Carpenter’s excellent desktop reference for the treatment and care of ‘‘exotic’’ animals. The species covered are only exotic in the sense that they were historically different than the traditional production and companion animals. Many of the species covered would be considered quite common today. Twenty-three veterinarians contributed to the formulary. The book is divided into 13 chapters plus 11 ‘‘selected’’ appendices. The chapters include: invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, the marsupial sugar gliders, hedgehogs, rodents, rabbits, ferrets, miniature pigs, primates, and wildlife. The appendices primarily address general information applicable to most of the preceding chapters. Examples include classification of selected antimicrobials used in exotic animal medicine; determining the basal metabolic rate of animals; allometric scaling of drugs used in animals; and common weight, liquid measure, and length conversions. The book is written primarily for zoo and clinical veterinarians, but it could be useful for wildlife veterinarians dealing with captive animals. The wildlife chapter is fairly brief, focusing on wildlife rehabilitation. Each chapter is subdivided into antimicrobial agents, antifungal agents, antiparasitic agents, chemical restraint/anesthetic agents, analgesic agents, and tables on hematologic and serum biochemical values. Some chapters include additional information on hormones, steroids, nutrition, or other topics of value. Each subcategory consists of three columns: chemical agent, dosage, and comments. The chemical agents are listed alphabetically often with the trade name in parentheses. There usually are several dosages for each agent reflecting different routes of administration, conditions, or species. Many dosages are linked to the source reference. Effective use of the formulary requires an initial differential diagnosis. One then uses the subcategory to find the agent specific for the treatment of the condition. The appendices provide information on antimicrobial efficacies against selected microbes and the treatment of urinary tract infections, skin infections, and other common conditions. Only the chapter on amphibians provided differential diagnoses by predominant signs, a feature that would have been useful for all chapters. The index is only four pages long, yet there are hundreds to thousands of agents, conditions, and species mentioned in the text. Comparable formularies have far more extensive indices. Perhaps all these terms would be overwhelming to index, but modern desktop publishing software greatly simplifies this task. Most users would start with the index if they know the condition. For example, pasteurellosis is neither listed individually, nor even as a condition under ‘‘Rabbits.’’ Nonetheless, there is no comparable formulary on the market for these species and the wealth of information easily justifies the modest price. Carpenter’s formulary is a must for veterinarians and others dealing with these species.