Wildlife Site Research Articles

Optimizing regulatory requirements to aid in the implementation of compensatory mitigation

Optimizing regulatory requirements to aid in the implementation of compensatory mitigation

Ranging characteristics of the domestic cat (Felis catus) in an urban environment

In many countries, high densities of domestic cats (Felis catus) are found in urban habitats where they have the potential to exert considerable predation pressure on their prey. However, little is known of the ranging behaviour of cats in the UK. Twenty cats in suburban Reading, UK, were fitted with GPS trackers to quantify movement patterns. Cats were monitored during the summer and winter for an average of 6.8 24 h periods per season. Mean daily area ranged (95 % MCP) was 1.94 ha. Including all fixes, mean maximum area ranged was 6.88 ha. These are broadly comparable to those observed in urban areas in other countries. Daily area ranged was not affected by the cat’s sex or the season, but was significantly larger at night than during the day. There was no relationship between area ranged and habitat availability. Taking available habitat into account, cat ranging area contained significantly more garden and other green space than urban habitats. If cats were shown to be negatively affecting prey populations, one mitigation option for consideration in housing developments proposed near important wildlife sites would be to incorporate a ‘buffer zone’ in which cat ownership was not permitted. Absolute maximum daily area ranged by a cat in this study was 33.78 ha. This would correspond to an exclusory limit of approximately 300–400 m to minimise the negative effects of cat predation, but this may need to be larger if cat ranging behaviour is negatively affected by population density.

Wildlife Contact Rates at Artificial Feeding Sites in Texas

Given the popularity of feeding white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Texas and the increasing amount of corn that is distributed, more information is needed on the impacts of this activity on non-target wildlife. Our objectives were to report visitation, intra- and interspecific contact, and contact rates of wildlife at artificial feeding sites in Texas. Our study was conducted at three sites in Kleberg and Nueces counties, Texas. We trapped animals from February to April and August to September, 2009 and marked animals with passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. At each site and season, we placed one feeder system containing a PIT tag reader within 600 m of trap locations. Readers detected PIT tags from a distance of 25 cm. We determined a contact event to occur when two different PIT tags were detected by feeder systems within 5 s. We recorded 62,719 passes by raccoons (Procyon lotor), 103,512 passes by collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu), 2,923 passes by feral swine (Sus scrofa), 1,336 passes by fox squirrels (Sciurus niger), and no passes by opossums (Didelphis virginiana) at feeder systems. For site-season combinations in which contact events occurred, we found intraspecific contact rates (contacts per day) for raccoons, collared peccaries, and feral swine to be 0.81-124.77, 0.69-38.08, and 0.0-0.66, respectively. Throughout our study we distributed ~2,625 kg of whole kernel corn, which resulted in 6,351 contact events between marked wildlife (2.4 contacts per kg of corn). If 136 million kg of corn is distributed in Texas annually, we would expect >5.2 billion unnatural contact events between wildlife would result from this activity each year in Texas. Consequently, we do not believe that it is wise for natural resource managers to maintain artificial feeding sites for white-tailed deer or other wildlife due to pathogen transmission risks.

The King's Wood in Lindrick

From the late 12th century to the dissolution of the monasteries, the King's Wood belonged to Roche Abbey, a Cistercian house in South Yorkshire. Since then, it has formed part of the Sandbeck estate. An interdisciplinary approach draws on ecological survey, archival study and place-name evidence to understand its role as timber resource, pleasure park and heritage and wildlife site. In particular, it suggests that the remarkable abundance of large-leaved limes, Tilia platyphyllos, in this wood and along the nearby Magnesian Limestone scarp, places the wood at the core of an ancient Anglian district which still bears the name Lindrick, the 'lime-tree ridge'.

Community wildlife sites in Oxfordshire: an exploration of ecological and social meanings for green spaces

The paper explores the experiences and meanings that participants attribute to community wildlife sites, a new kind of space created through the initiative and commitment of local residents, often without any wider organisational involvement. The study focuses on six case studies in Oxfordshire, England. It is exploratory and discusses the findings as points of departure for further research. In all the sites, community was an important part of the motivation for starting the work, social relations a rewarding aspect of engaging in it, and personal connection with the site and its experiences of nature, a widely and emotionally expressed outcome. The sites offer spaces for the active enactment of participation in nature. While access is essential, property rights appear to be less important than the sense of ownership generated through interaction with the site. Likewise, formal organisation and governance is less important to the participants, than the social interactions of the group, and new friendships. The primary purpose in each case, is to give people more access to ‘the countryside’ or ‘nature’ or ‘orchids’. In doing so, however, the participants have given themselves experiences that are personally meaningful. There is potential for contribution to resilient landscapes through networks of habitats, and to wider social objectives of government policy, but these will have to be balanced carefully with the important of local initiative in contributing to the sites’ meanings.

Community wildlife sites in Oxfordshire: an exploration of ecological and social meanings for green spaces

The paper explores the experiences and meanings that participants attribute to community wildlife sites, a new kind of space created through the initiative and commitment of local residents, often without any wider organisational involvement. The study focuses on six case studies in Oxfordshire, England. It is exploratory and discusses the findings as points of departure for further research. In all the sites, community was an important part of the motivation for starting the work, social relations a rewarding aspect of engaging in it, and personal connection with the site and its experiences of nature, a widely and emotionally expressed outcome. The sites offer spaces for the active enactment of participation in nature. While access is essential, property rights appear to be less important than the sense of ownership generated through interaction with the site. Likewise, formal organisation and governance is less important to the participants, than the social interactions of the group, and new friendships. The primary purpose in each case, is to give people more access to ‘the countryside’ or ‘nature’ or ‘orchids’. In doing so, however, the participants have given themselves experiences that are personally meaningful. There is potential for contribution to resilient landscapes through networks of habitats, and to wider social objectives of government policy, but these will have to be balanced carefully with the important of local initiative in contributing to the sites’ meanings.

Aboriginal Interpretation in Australian Wildlife Tourism

This paper evaluates Aboriginal cultural interpretation at wildlife attractions and on wildlife tours in Australia. The sites included 14 wildlife parks or zoos; three Aboriginal-owned emu or crocodile farms; and 16 wildlife tours, river cruises or resorts with Indigenous interpretation of wildlife. Telephone interviews were conducted with 35 managers (nine Indigenous) and 26 Indigenous staff at wildlife attractions that included verbal or written Aboriginal wildlife interpretation. The Indigenous guides verbally presented both traditional uses and personal stories about Australian wildlife followed by Aboriginal ‘Dreaming’ or creation stories about totemic animal species. Non-Indigenous staff explained traditional Aboriginal uses of wildlife followed by biological facts and species information. The responses in this study thus highlight cultural differences in animal attitudes and approaches to wildlife use or interpretation. According to staff, tourists benefit from the inclusion of Aboriginal interpretation at wildlife sites by broadening their mind, dispelling myths, learning/education about Aboriginal cultures, novelty and excitement for visitors, increasing cultural awareness and developing more positive attitudes towards Indigenous people. Some guidelines for wildlife attractions and tours to develop and present Aboriginal cultural interpretation of Australian wildlife are also identified.

Rarity and site selection for bryophyte conservation

Sites that are particularly rich in rare species are of significant conservation value and there is consequently a need to ensure that they are highlighted by methods which aim to select sites for potential safeguarding. This study measures the value for rare bryophytes of 434 sites, located in South Lancashire, north-west England (UK). Using cluster analysis, these are split into three groups, representing high, moderate and low rarity value sites. Sub-sets of sites of equal total area were then created for hypothetical safeguarding using two of the many site selection methods in operation, one being a traditional criteria-based approach and the other a maximum-coverage algorithmic procedure. Both methods failed to choose all sites of high value for rare bryophytes, while the latter included substantially more smaller sites of moderate and low value. It seems that a threshold type criterion assessed against a composite and continuous measure of rarity has the potential to improve the selection of sites of substantive wildlife value. This is discussed in the context of the networks of Local Wildlife Sites and Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the UK.

Optimal management of a flammable multi-stand forest for timber production and maintenance of nesting sites for wildlife

Decline of cavity-using wildlife species is a major forest management issue. One of the causes of this problem is the loss in cavity tree abundance, resulting from short rotation silviculture, stand-replacing disturbance events and timber harvesting in disturbed stands. Cavity tree availability cannot be guaranteed due to the stochastic nature of disturbance events. We developed a Markov model to predict future cavity tree availability under alternative tree felling and fire protection strategies using information on cavity tree dynamics and fire history. Stochastic dynamic programming was used to find a strategy that maximizes timber revenues less forest management costs, including the cost of an artificial nest-box program that must be implemented whenever cavity trees become critically scarce. The requirement to implement a nest-box program in such circumstances strongly influenced the optimal tree felling strategy and resulted in a higher probability of having cavity trees in the future. This reflected an increase in the retention of old growth forest and stands with fire-killed cavity trees as well as stands of younger trees to provide a future source of cavities. These results demonstrate the need to consider the costs of artificial habitat enhancement and the risk of future cavity tree scarcity in multiple-use forest management planning.

The Role of Specially Designated Wildlife Sites in Freshwater Conservation — An English Perspective

The value of specially designated sites in conserving biodiversity has been a hotly debated issue for many years in the UK and elsewhere. The debate recently has been given fresh impetus in England by the creation of Natural England, the new Government Agency responsible for the protection and enhancement of the natural environment, and the challenges facing the management of designated sites resulting from the increasingly tangible effects of climate change. In the freshwater environment, the role of designated sites is under a particular spotlight because of the implementation of the European ‘Water Framework Directive’, which aspires to holistic, ecologically based management of aquatic habitats.This paper explores the underlying premises of, and rationale for, special site designations for wildlife and provides a frank account of the inevitable clash of management philosophies that designations create in the freshwater environment. It draws on experiences of managing designated freshwater sites in England over the past decade from within English Nature, the former statutory agency for nature conservation (succeeded by Natural England). The issues and principles discussed, are however, highly relevant to the rest of the UK, other European Member States and countries further afield.A positive role is outlined for designated sites in freshwater conservation, which addresses these management conflicts in a way that not only meets Government obligations towards these sites but also paves the way for informed, progressive management of the wider freshwater resource. As part of this account, attempts are made to clarify the relationship between key biodiversity-related policy drivers in the freshwater environment and to explain how the spectre of climate change can be addressed within designated site management. The importance of strategic freshwater science, collaboratively designed and funded, in maximising the value of the designated freshwater site network to the wider freshwater habitat resource, is stressed.

The unpredictability of favourability: condition assessment and protected areas in England

The probability that protected areas will deliver their potential for maintaining or enhancing biodiversity is likely to be maximised if they are appropriately and effectively managed. As a result, governments and conservation agencies are devoting much attention to the management of protected areas. In the U.K., the demand for performance accountability has resulted in Public Service Agreements (PSA) that set out targets for government departments to deliver results in return for investments being made. One such target for England is to ensure that all nationally important wildlife sites are in favourable condition by 2010. Here, we tested the hypothesis, of potential strategic importance, that the ecological condition of these sites is predictable from relationships with a range of physical, environmental and demographic variables. We used binary logistic regression to investigate these relationships, using the results of English Nature’s 1997–2003 condition assessment exercise. Generally, sites in unfavourable condition tend to be larger in area, located at higher elevations, but with higher human population density and are more spatially isolated from units of the same habitat. However, despite the range of different parameters included in our models, the extent to which the condition of any given site could be predicted was low. Our results have implications for the delivery of PSA targets, funding allocation, and the location of new protected areas.

Controlling sediment and phosphorus transfer to receiving waters – A strategic management perspective for England and Wales

The adverse ecological effects of elevated levels of phosphorus (P) and fine sediment (termed silt) in surface waters are a major environmental issue both nationally and internationally. Increasingly, the Water Framework Directive (WFD) will provide the basis for the integrated management of European waters, but there is a more immediate need for action to safeguard designated wildlife sites from the effects of eutrophication and siltation. We outline the policy drivers behind the control of these pollution problems, the nature and extent of ecological risks and approaches to target-based management within catchments. Tackling diffuse sources of P and silt requires accurate apportionment of local sources and contributing areas, and integration of practical action with the development of an improved quantitative understanding of the management changes needed in catchments to meet environmental objectives. Such an approach can be used to refine policies on land-based emissions of these pollutants and operational strategies for control. The critical role of catchment appraisal through modelling within this approach is stressed. Management measures to control agricultural sources of P and silt will also help to address other key catchment management objectives (flood risk management, water resource management, terrestrial and wetland habitat restoration). Climate change predictions indicate that the need for integrated catchment management, to increase the resilience of catchments, wildlife and people to extremes of weather conditions (drought and flood) and temperature trends, has never been greater.

Implementing International Environmental Agreements: The Case of the Wadden Sea

It has been a feature of the past 30 years or so that individual sovereign states have been increasingly willing to partially set aside their own interests in favour of international treaties on pollution control and wildlife protection. It is the political will of the government signatories to such agreements that is the key to successful implementation as that political will provides the legitimate enforceable authority that is necessary to ensure compliance. This paper examines a trilateral agreement made by the Governments of Denmark, Germany and Holland for the protection and management of the Wadden Sea—one of Europe's most important wildlife sites. The examination of that agreement explores the key mechanisms used for its implementation and, in the case of the Wadden Sea, those mechanisms include the operation of key European Union environmental Directives. The paper finds major differences in approach and application of the Birds, Habitats and Environmental Impact Assessment Directives across the Wadden Sea region and argues that these differences undermine the trilateral agreements made by the three governments.

The European Community and Biodiversity Loss: Missing the Target?

The European Community has set itself the stringent policy target of halting all biodiversity loss by 2010. It intends to achieve this target by following a dual strategy. On the one hand, the 1979 Wild Birds Directive and 1992 Habitats Directive are designed to protect important sites housing vulnerable wildlife. On the other hand, biodiversity protection is to be integrated into all other Community policies. The Community views the Common Agricultural Policy as having a vital role in both areas. It provides a mechanism through which much needed Community funding can be channelled into the management of protected wildlife sites. Equally, it also has an important influence upon biodiversity in the wider countryside. This article examines the regulatory measures that have been taken to integrate biodiversity protection into the Community's agricultural policies and assesses whether they are likely to be sufficient to enable the Community to meet its 2010 target.

The role of forensic geoscience in wildlife crime detection

The increase in both automation and precision in the analysis of geological materials has had significant impact upon forensic investigations in the last 10 years. There is however, a fundamental philosophical difference between forensic and geological enquiry. This paper presents the results of forensic geoscientific investigations of three cases of wildlife crime. Two cases involve the analysis of soils recovered after incidents of illegal badger baiting in the United Kingdom. The third case involves the illegal importation of Eleonora's Falcon ( Falco eleonorae) into the United Kingdom from the Mediterranean. All three cases utilise the analysis of soils by a variety of physical, chemical and biological techniques. These involve mineral and grain size analyses, cation and anion compositions, pH, organic content and pollen analysis. The independent analysis undertaken by specialists in each of these three main fields conclude firstly, that there is a significant similarity between sediments taken at the crime site at both badger setts and with sediments recovered from various spades, shovels and clothing belonging to suspects and secondly, that the soils analysed associated with the removal of the falcon eggs in the Mediterranean contained characteristics similar in many respects to the soils of the breeding areas of F. eleonorae on the cliffs of Mallorca. The use of these independent techniques in wildlife crime detection has great potential given the ubiquitous nature of soils and sediments found in association with wildlife sites.

English

Kentucky -31 (KY-31) tall fescue (Festuca arundinacae) produces an effective ground cover and can be a valuable forage crop; however, it has been shown to be a detriment to wildlife populations through habitat colonization (elimination of bare ground, suppression of other valuable plants, and the toxic nature of seeds and vegetative matter to wildlife species). Because of its ability to effectively control erosion and produce high forage yields, KY-31 has been a commonly used grass species for surface mine reclamation. The objective of this study is to assess the suitability of approximately 54.1 hectares of reclaimed wildlife habitat inadvertently seeded with KY-31 fescue at Associated Electric Cooperative, Inc. (AECI), Prairie Hill Mine in northern Missouri. Land type assessment models were used to score wildlife habitat suitability. Models were structured to rate quality factors based on vegetative communities, spatial distribution, and favorable environmental conditions to wildlife species. Data collection was accomplished with real time mobile mapping GPS devices using ArcPad software and analyzed with ArcGIS desktop. Through the use of spatial technologies, wildlife models produced a score under optimal conditions as well as applied a rating to both KY-31 seeded wildlife habitat and wildlife areas proposed by AECI for mitigation. Rating points for wildlife habitat seeded with KY-31 and areas proposed for mitigation were totaled and compared to the derived target value. Initially, wildlife sites seeded with KY-31 fescue scored below the target values. However, when the fescue areas were totaled with the wildlife mitigation tracts the habitat suitability exceeded the target values generated by the assessment models. This study demonstrates the site specific effects of KY-31 in differing wildlife habitat land types and provides field assessment techniques to measure suitability. Through the use of adapted wildlife habitat rating models and new technologies such as mobile computing and GIS, the effects of KY-31 can be quantified, allowing appropriate mitigation to offset resource losses.

Could tourist boots act as vectors for disease transmission in Antarctica?

Over the last decade there has been a rapid increase in the number of visitors landing at wildlife sites on the Antarctic continent, and concern has been raised that tourists may transmit important pathogens to or between wildlife colonies. The aim of this study was to determine if tourist activities pose a potential threat to Antarctic wildlife, or possibly to human populations through carriage of pathogens on boots. In two trips conducted to Antarctica in the summer season of 2000/2001, swabs were collected from tourist boots: prior to landing, to determine baseline level of bacterial flora on the boots (A isolates); immediately on return to the ship, to quantify the level of contamination (B isolates); and after the boots were washed in seawater to determine the recovery of the organisms after cleaning (C isolates). Swabs were cultured for coliforms, and isolates identified using the API system. Twenty organisms resembling coliforms were isolated from 15 of 72 pairs of boots. Two isolates were recovered from group A, 4 from group B, and 14 from group C. Of these 20 isolates, 11 could be identified using the API identification method. The remaining 9 isolates all produced an unknown but identical profile number. These results indicate that current practices for cleaning the boots of tourists visiting Antarctic wildlife colonies may not be sufficient to prevent the transmission of pathogens, and indicate that further studies are needed to define the best method of disinfection.

Pupil authors and teacher innovators

This article explores three aspects regarding the supporting of teaching and learning through ICT. First, the use and value of storyboarding as a preferable technique prior to the creation of a pupil‐authored CD‐ROM by children aged 9 and 14. Second, responses to the innovation by practising teachers. Third, lessons learned from trying to incorporate the CD‐ROM within UK teacher training. The article ends with suggestions regarding future ICT training approaches. The content of the CD‐ROM was centred on environmental education and the use of local wildlife sites in the UK. In summary, the paper suggests that there are considerable learning gains to be had from enabling children to create their own multimedia sequences but that institutional constraints make these difficult to achieve. School‐based teacher education in the UK currently restricts the opportunity for experimentation and innovation, which, in turn, impacts on the full potential of teaching and learning through ICT. Cet article explore trois facettes de la question du soutien que les technologies de l'information et de la communication apportent à l'enseignement et à l'apprentissage. Premièrement, l'utilisation et la contribution des scénarimages comme technique préalable préférable à la réalisation d'un CD ROM par des élèves âgés de 9 à 14 ans. Deuxièmement, les réactions des professeurs en exercice vis‐à‐vis de cette innovation. Troisièmement, les leçons tirées des tentatives d'incorporation des CD ROMS dans la formation des profs au Royaume‐Uni. L'article se termine par des suggestions concernant l'approche future de la formation aux technologies de la communication et de l'information. Le contenu du CD ROM était centré sur l'éducation environnementale et l'utilisation des sites de la vie sauvage locale au Royaume –Uni. En résumé, l'article suggère qu'il existe de véritables bénéfices pour l'apprentissage, à donner la possibilité aux enfants de créer leurs propres séquences multimédia mais que les contraintes institutionnelles rendent cela difficile à réaliser. Le système anglais de la formation des professeurs, basée sur les stages en école, réduit la possibilité d'innover. En retour, cela a un impact sur le potentiel total de l'enseignement et l'apprentissage à travers les technologies de l'information et de la communication. Este artículo explora tres aspectos referentes a la contribución de la tecnología de comunicación e información a la enseñanza y el aprendizaje. En primer lugar, el uso y valor de la invención de historias como técnica previa a la creación de un CD‐ROM cuyos autores son alumnos de 9 a 14 años. En segundo lugar, las respuestas que algunos profesores en ejercicio dieron a tal innovación. Por último, las conclusiones extraídas tras intentar incorporar el CD‐ROM a la formación del profesorado en el Reino Unido. El artículo termina con sugerencias relativas al posible enfoque para el aprendizaje de la tecnología de comunicación e información en el futuro. El contenido del CD‐ROM estaba basado en la educación medioambiental y el uso de las reservas naturales en el Reino Unido. En resumen, el trabajo sugiere que existen ventajas educativas importantes para los alumnos al poder crear sus propias secuencias multimedia, pero las restricciones institucionales dificultan su obtención. La formación del profesorado en el Reino Unido, basado en la experiencia escolar, limita en la actualidad las oportunidades de éste para experimentar e innovar, lo que, a su vez, repercute en el pleno potencial de la enseñanza y el aprendizaje a través de la tecnología de comunicación e información. Dieser Artikel befasst sich mit drei Aspekten des Lehrens und Lernens bzgl. deren Erweiterung durch Einbeziehung von Informationstechnologie (Informatik). Erstens: Anwendung und Wert eines ‘Drehplans’ als bevorzugte Methode. Der ‘Drehplan’ gilt als Vorbereitung für eine CD‐ROM, welche von den Autoren, Schülern im Alter von 9 und 14 Jahren, selbst gestaltet wird. Zweitens: Reaktionen auf die Innovation seitens praktizierender Lehrer. Drittens: Erfahrungen aus Versuchen, die CD‐ROM in der britischen Lehrerausbildung einzusetzen. Der Artikel schließt mit Vorschlägen, wie man in Zukunft das Training in Informationstechnologie einführen könnte. Inhaltlich konzentriert sich die CD‐ROM einerseits auf Umwelterziehung (im allgemeinen und im globalen Sinn), andererseits auf Nutzung und Benutzung von Naturschutzgebieten in britischen Orten. In der Zusammenfassung wird dargelegt, dass Kinder zwar beträchtlich profitieren, wenn sie zur Erstellung selbst kreierter multimedialer Sequenzen angeregt werden, dies jedoch im beschränkten schulischen Rahmen nur schwer zu erreichen ist. Die britische, in der Schule stattfindende Lehrerausbildung schränkt gegenwärtig Chancen zum Experimentieren und Innovieren ein, was sich, umgekehrt, auf das gesamte Lehr‐ und Lernpotential im Bereich der Informationstechnologie auswirkt.

The role of kangaroos in Australian tourism.

Generally absent from the debate on the management of kangaroos (Macropodoidea) is discussion of their role in tourism. This paper examines the role that kangaroos play in Australian tourism, synthesising the findings of four related projects undertaken recently by the Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism. It investigates the role of kangaroos in tourism marketing imagery, international tourist demand and existing tourism enterprises, and examines opportunities for future development of tourism involving kangaroos. In order to assess these aspects, experimental studies, interviews, visitor surveys, content analysis of advertising material, postal surveys of wildlife professionals and site visits were conducted. The kangaroo was found to be one of the world?s best-recognised tourism icons and to generate positive responses among Americans; yet it is apparently under-utilised in overseas travel brochures designed to attract international tourists to Australia. The use of kangaroos in tourism is already widespread, with over 190 tourism enterprises including kangaroo viewing, and with the kangaroo featuring in organised wildlife tourism more frequently than any other type of animal. However kangaroos are generally just one component of a broader tourism experience. While 18.4% of international visitors are motivated to visit Australia partly because of its native animals, there are very few who would not come otherwise. Kangaroos and koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are by far the most popular animals with international visitors. Most visitors who wished to do so, succeeded in seeing kangaroos during their visit, and most expressed high levels of satisfaction with their wildlife experiences. The most satisfying kangaroo viewing experiences are likely to involve the relatively large, social species of open habitats. However areas where these species are most likely to be abundant mostly score poorly in terms of feasibility of tourism. Tourism is one significant management option for Australia?s kangaroos, and its potential deserves further investigation.

Simplified geostatistical analysis of earthquake-induced ground response at the Wildlife Site, California, U.S.A

Almost all natural soils are highly variable and rarely homogeneous. In this study, the seismic response of the Wildlife Site, Imperial Valley, California, U.S.A., has been analysed to assess the effect of ground heterogeneity on liquefaction assessment in a probabilistic analysis framework. Cone penetration test (CPT) data recorded at the site have been used to identify different lithologies and to estimate elements of soil inherent spatial variability. Monte Carlo simulation has been utilized to obtain several realizations of CPT data that were then implemented into empirical approaches to examine the liquefaction susceptibility of the site. In addition, stochastic analysis of liquefaction-induced surface damage has been carried out through the application of these realizations into damage criteria, such as total liquefaction damage potential and surface settlement. These stochastic analyses have indicated that using mean values in deterministic analysis can be on the unsafe side. As a result, attempts have been made to obtain meaningful representative soil parameters that can be used in simplified deterministic analysis, while continuing to honor detailed ground heterogeneity. In addition, an empirical technique has been developed to compare ground variability of potentially liquefiable sites on a qualitative basis.Key words: liquefaction, spatial variability, stochastic analysis, cone penetration test, damage, characteristic parameters.