Wildlife Research Unit Research Articles

Evaluation of Fall Burning on Bighorn Sheep Winter Range

Evaluation of Fall Burning on Bighorn Sheep Winter Range

Bobcat Density and Prey Selection in Central Arizona

We trapped, ear-tagged, trailed with hounds, and collected scats from bobcats (Lynx rufus) on 28.8 km2 of the Three Bar Wildlife Area in central Arizona from May 1975 to May 1976. Their minimum estimated density on the study area was 1 per 3.6-4.1 km2. The contents of 176 scats indicated that rodents (67%) and lagomorphs (38%) were most frequently taken. The frequencies of their remains in the scats did not vary significantly among bimonthly samples. Populations of rodents and lagomorphs varied significantly during the year, but neither was correlated with bobcat prey selection. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 43(3):666-672 We studied bobcats on the Three Bar Wildlife Area in central Arizona from May 1975 to May 1976 to determine their density in the lower/upper Sonoran lifezone transition, seasonal diets in this habitat, and the relation of diet to prey availability. A statewide decline and subsequent slow recovery in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations in the early 1960's (Jantzen 1964) prompted the Arizona Game and Fish Department to initiate a series of studies to determine the causes of poor fawn survival in Arizona's mule deer herds. In 1970 the Department enclosed 246 ha of typical mule deer habitat on the Three Bar Wildlife Area with predator-resistant chain link fencing. All bobcats and coyotes (Canis latrans) were removed from the enclosure, and the interior has since been monitored for tracks to ensure that it has remained predatorfree. Between 1971 and 1975, annual deer herd composition and population counts on the Three Bar were compared with the same data from inside the enclosure. The results indicated virtually complete fawn survival inside the enclosure, while survival outside (where mule deer hunting has been closely regulated and monitored since 1964) was lower (LeCount 1975, 1977). Bobcat or coyote predation on fawns may be limiting herd size on the Three Bar. Similar findings for javelina (Dicotyles tajacu) indicate that predation may also be limiting their numbers (Day and Smith 1975). Bobcat predation on mature deer has been well documented (Young 1928, Dill 1947, Petraborg and Gunvalson 1962); thus it is logical to assume that they could prey extensively on the more vulnerable fawns. The Three Bar Wildlife Area is an ideal location for investigating such predator-prey relations because the hunting and trapping of predators has been prohibited there since 1972. We thank A. and K. LeCount, N. Woolsey, and the Three Bar research crew for their frequent assistance. We also acknowledge C. Hanson and his Desert Museum co-workers, R. Babcock, L. K. Sowls, and C. R. Hungerford, and L. and M. Jones. 1 A contribution of the Arizona Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Arizona, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arizona Game and Fish Department, and the Wildlife Management Institute cooperating. 2 Present address: Department of Zoology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27706. 666 J. Wildl. Manage. 43(3):1979 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.230 on Tue, 07 Jun 2016 05:24:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms BOBCAT DENSITY AND PREY IN ARIZONA Jones and Smith 667 Table 1. Percentages of occurrence of prey items in 176 bobcat scats collected on the Three Bar Wildlife Area, Arizona. Jun-Jul Aug-Sep Oct-Nov Dec-Jan Feb-Mar Apr-May Annual (42)a (41) (23) (19) (34) (17) (176) Food item N % N % N % N % N % N % N % Total rodentsb 29 69 32 78 16 70 11 58 19 56 10 59 117 67 Neotoma spp. 17 41 15 37 6 26 4 21 9 27 5 29 56 32 Heteromyid 10 24 7 17 2 9 3 16 4 12 2 12 28 16 Thomomys bottae 2 5 2 5 3 13 1 5 1 6 9 5 Spermophilus variegatus 2 5 3 13 1 5 1 3 1 6 8 5 Peromyscus spp. 3 7 1 2 1 6 5 3 Ammospermophilus harrisi 1 4 1 3 2 1 Unknown rodent 5 12 10 24 3 13 3 5 6 18 2 12 29 17 Lagomorph 13 31 16 39 8 35 8 42 14 41 7 41 66 38 Odocoileus spp. 4 10 1 4 5 3 Dicotyles tajacu 1 2 1 1 Mephitis spp. 1 2 1 1 Canis spp. 1 4 1 1 Eggshell 8 19 4 10 6 35 18 10 Unknown bird 1 2 4 12 2 12 7 4 Unknown snake 1 3 1 1

Habitat Use by Columbian White-Tailed Deer

Columbian white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus leucurus) were studied to provide information for management of habitat essential to this endangered subspecies. Vegetation was assigned to major community groupings of rush, thistle, grass, horsetail, and forest. Coverage of 85% of the 790-ha study area provided information concerning utilization of the plant communities by these animals that have adopted a diurnal activity pattern. Communities providing both cover and forage were more heavily utilized than were communities providing cover or forage alone. Communities providing forage alone were used most near adjacent cover. Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) provided cover in summer and allowed deer to utilize previously unused areas. Browse was not used. Green forage was available throughout the year. Restricting visitors to periphery roads allows continuance of the diurnal activity pattern of the deer and aids public enjoyment. Establishment of patches of permanent woody cover where absent would aid in dispersion of the population throughout the refuge. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 43(3):610-619 This study provided information on habitat use by an endangered ungulate. Published information concerning the Columbian white-tailed deer documents only its discovery (Douglas 1829; Thwaites 1905, vol. 4:209-210; Douglas 1914) and subsequent decrease in numbers (Jewett 1914, Bailey 1936). Douglas (1829) reported white-tailed deer along the lower Columbia River and along the Cowlitz and Willamette rivers in Washington and Oregon, respectively (Fig. 1), and provided the original description of the subspecies. Brushy lands in river valleys and surrounding low foothills from the south end of Puget Sound in Washington to Roseburg, Oregon, were the historical habitat and range of the subspecies (Bailey 1936:91, Cowan 1936). The population was extirpated from most if its range by 1900 (Jewett 1914, Bailey 1936) during clearing and agricultural development of river valleys (Crews 1939:2). Jewett listed a small concentration of white-tailed deer near Roseburg in 1934 (Cowan 1936:203). Scheffer (1940) reported 500700 white-tailed deer along the shores of the lower Columbia River and on islands near Cathlamet, Washington and Westport, Oregon. A more recent estimate places the numbers from 250 to 300 along the lower Columbia River (Office of Endangered Species and International Activities 1973:266). Suring (1974) estimated between 200 and 230 deer on the Washington shore in 1973. The survival of the Columbian white-tailed deer in this area prior to 1940 and to the present implies that favorable habitat conditions exist. Description of the habitat utilization by the deer on the newly created Columbian White-tailed Deer National Wildlife Refuge (CWDNWR) was considered essential to provide a basis for management of this remnant population and possible reestablishment of this subspecies on portions of its former range. 1 Study supported by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Refuges and the Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Oregon State University, and the Wildlife Management Institute cooperating. Technical paper 4406, Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis, OR 97331. 2 Present address: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, 3530 Pan American Highway, Albuquerque, NM 87107. 3 Present address: Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074. 610 J. Wildl. Manage. 43(3):1979 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.155 on Tue, 07 Jun 2016 06:29:29 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms HABITAT USE BY COLUMBIAN WHITE-TAILED DEER* Suring and Vohs 611 We acknowledge D. A. Fisher, former manager, CWDNWR, and the personnel of the Willapa National Wildlife Refuge who gave assistance throughout the study. Funding was provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Refuges, through the Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. T. A. Gavin, R. L. Linder, E. C. Meslow, J. A. Bissonette, and F. L. Knopf provided helpful comments on the manuscript.

Woodcock Movements and Habitat Utilization in Central Alabama

Seventeen American woodcock (Philohela minor) were telemetrically studied during the winters of 1973-75 on a 211-ha farm in Lee County, Alabama. Data from 10 males and 7 females were used to study movements and habitat utilization. Radio-marked woodcock used mixed hardwood-pine and adjacent bottomland hardwood cover types as diurnal habitat. Activity center stem densities averaged 3,818 ?356 (SE) stems/ha for midstory I and 3,997 ? 450 stems/ha in midstory II. Ground cover in the activity centers consisted of 53 ? 4% leaf litter and/or bare soil. Diurnal home range size averaged 9.2 ? 2.3 ha. Half the nocturnal locations were in permanent openings and half were in woodlands. Woodcock were consistently active during daylight hours. Crepuscular flights averaged 183 ? 28 m distance. Nocturnal movement was less than diurnal movement although the difference was not significant. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 43(2):414-420 Managing woodcock for hunting requires analysis of the habitat types utilized by the bird. Quantitative descriptions of woodcock habitat are available for much of the northern portion of the bird's range, but Owen et al. (1977) noted the paucity of information concerning woodcock habitat needs and availability on their southern wintering grounds. Emlen (1956) suggested that differences between preferred and avoided habitats might be associated with vegetational structure rather than specific composition. In statewide surveys in Alabama we had observed numerous woodcock in a variety of forest habitats. The only apparent similarity in variable floristic communities was vegetational structure. Midstory stem density and percent ground cover seemed to be important structural aspects of diurnal woodcock coverts. Telemetric studies of woodcock wintering in east-central Alabama were begun in 1972 and continued through the winter of 1975. Investigators indentified and described diurnal and nocturnal habitat used by woodcock, and measured movements of radio-tagged birds within these habitats. Emphasis was placed on quantitative descriptions of vegetation types utilized most often by instrumented birds. We are especially indebted to P. E. Crow, Jr. for use of his farm as a study area. This study was funded by the Alabama Department of Conservation, Division of Game and Fish, through the Alabama Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit and by the Agricultural Experiment Station of Auburn University.

Effects of Interstate 95 on Breeding Birds in Northern Maine

The effects of 2-lane and 4-lane highways on forest birds were examined along Interstate 95 (1-95) in northern Maine during 1975-77. Total numbers of breeding birds in forest areas near the highway were not significantly different from those at greater distances. Four species were less abundant near the highway, after accounting for variations in habitat, and 6 other species were more abundant. Addition of species nesting along the forest-right-of-way (ROW) edge caused a slight increase in species richness and diversity. The ROW and median strip along 4-lane highway supported half as many breeding birds as an equal amount of forest habitat. Densities of breeding birds in the ROW along 2-lane highway were 79% of those in forest habitats. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 43(2):421-427 The influence of a highway on wildlife begins with destruction of habitat, as pavement and grass replace existing plant communities. Where these are forest communities the change is dramatic, and for forest wildlife the area may no longer be suitable. Subsequent use of the highway may disturb certain species of wildlife in areas near the road, rendering additional habitats unsuitable. On the other hand, habitats created in the rightof-way (ROW) and developing along the forest-ROW edge may support species not present in forest communities. This study examined the effects of 1-95 on breeding bird populations in forest habitats in northern Maine. The objectives were to determine: (1) the size of the population lost through removal of forest habitat encompassed by the highway and ROW; (2) whether highway use caused a change in bird populations in forest habitat outside the ROW; and (3) which species, if any, were adversely or favorably affected by the highway. I am grateful to the Maine Department of Transportation for financial and technical assistance. V. B. Richens, M. W. Coulter, R. B. Owen, Jr., and R. C. Eckhardt, of the University of Maine at Orono, provided editorial assistance. The following persons helped collect field data: Nona Famous, Norman Famous, Linda Wright, Wesley Wright, and Deborah Palman. This paper is a contribution of the Maine Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Maine, and Wildlife Management Institute, cooperating.

The Influence of Extremes of Temperature on Activity Patterns of Peccaries

The ecological determinants of activity patterns of peccaries (Dicotyles tajacu Linnaeus) were studied in Big Bend National Park, Texas, from June 1972 to April 1974. Cessation of feeding activity and initiation of bedding were found to be negatively correlated with minimum daily temperature (r2 = 0.51). The colder the preceding night and early morning (minimal temperatures were generally reached at about 0500) the later into the morning peccaries fed before bedding for the day. Depending on temperature, peccaries bedded from 0800 to approximately noon. Onset of feeding activity in the afternoon was correlated with maximal daily afternoon temperatures (r2 = 0.64). As maximal temperatures increased in the summer, peccaries remained in their bed progressively later into the day. .During the winter months peccaries left their beds in the early afternoon (1500), whereas during the hottest summer months activity was seldom initiated before 1700-1800. In desert habitats, peccaries exhibit seasonal variation in their movement and feeding patterns (Eddy 1961; Ellisor and Harwell 1969; Schweinsburg 1969; Bigler 1974). Activity patterns of peccaries have been reported previously (Jennings and Harris 1953; Bigler 1974; Day 1968, 1970, 1971a, 1972a, 1974a) but the relationships were not verified statistically. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between daily ambient temperature and the activity patterns of peccaries. STUDY AREA. The study was conducted in Big Bend National Park, in southwestern Texas on the Mexican border. Big Bend is situated in the northeastern portion of the Chihuahuan Desert and is comprised of the forested Chisos Mountains, low desert, and riparian vegetation along the Rio Grande. Although peccaries were found throughout the Park, the study site encompassed only an area of desert and foothills adjacent to the northeastern portion of the 1 Oklahoma Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 404 Life Sciences West, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074.

Vocalizations of Cassin's Finch in Northern Utah

Journal Article Vocalizations of Cassin's Finch in Northern Utah Get access Fred B. Samson Fred B. Samson Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Condor, Volume 80, Issue 2, 1 April 1978, Pages 203–210, https://doi.org/10.2307/1367919 Published: 01 April 1978 Article history Accepted: 27 September 1977 Published: 01 April 1978

Breeding of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) on the Beaufort Sea Coast of Alaska

Journal Article Breeding of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) on the Beaufort Sea Coast of Alaska Get access Douglas Schamel Douglas Schamel Alaska Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Condor, Volume 79, Issue 4, 1 October 1977, Pages 478–485, https://doi.org/10.2307/1367728 Published: 01 October 1977 Article history Accepted: 24 March 1977 Published: 01 October 1977

Evaluation of a Korean Pheasant Introduction in Missouri

We evaluated the success of releases of 4,172 South Korean pheasants (Phasianus colchicus karpowi) in the Missouri River bottom in west-central Missouri by measuring dispersal, breeding effort, brood production, and survival during and after the 5 release years, 1967-71. Dispersal of tagged pheasants released at 2 sites in 1970 averaged 2.9 km; the farthest movement was 24 km. A winter survey in 1972 indicated that distribution of pheasants in the area approximated the annual dispersal limits. High initial mortality of released birds was suggested by recoveries of tagged birds released in 1970. Substantial numbers of broods reported by landowners in annual surveys, and moderate crowing cock indices for 6 years following the last release indicate a reproducing population that is stabilizing at a low density. Lack of suitable nesting cover may be a factor limiting further growth of this population. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):616-623 In recent years land-use changes have altered the environment in a large part of Missouri, rendering it less suitable for native upland game populations. Despite these alterations much of the area appears to be potential pheasant range. Ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) were first introduced into Missouri in the early 1900's. From 1904 to 1933 an estimated 40,000 ringnecks were distributed by the Game and Fish Department (Bennitt and Nagel 1937:53). The disappearance of the bird convinced game biologists that with existing land-use trends and climatic conditions in Missouri the ring-necked pheasant could not reproduce and survive in sufficient numbers to sustain hunting except in the northwest counties (Fig. 1). In 1958 the Department of Conservation began a program of experimentally releasing the progeny of several pure strains and hybrids of wild-trapped Asian pheasants. Initia breeding stock was secured through a cooperative agreement with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in conjunction with its Foreign Game Introduction Program (Bump 1963). One of the subspecies selected for release in Missouri was the South Korean ring-necked pheasant (P. c. k rpowi). South Korean ringnecks were selected because they were known to breed in captivity, their behavioral attributes were similar to the other successfully introduced ringnecks, and their native habitats were similar in many respects to those in Missouri, the upper Midwest, and parts of the eastern United States. The South Korean climate (Bohl 1970) with hot, humid summers characterized by frequent heavy rainfall, and average winter temperatures below freezing with snow falling no more than 30 days annually, is similar to the Missouri climate. 1 Contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Missouri Department of Conservation, Wildlife Management Institute, and University of Missouri-Columbia, cooperating), from Federal Aid Project 13-R-23, Missouri Department of Conservation, and from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series Number 7616. The senior author was supported by a Paul K. Wehmiller Fellowship. 2 Present address: Ashland Wildlife Research Area, School of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Missouri-Columbia, Ashland 65010. 3 Present address: Division of Habitat Preservation Research, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240. 616 J. Wildl. Manage. 41(4):1977 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.102 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 04:08:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms KOREAN PHEASANTS IN MISSOURI -Wollard et al. 617

Accuracy of Sex and Age Ratio Counts of White-Tailed Deer

Field counts of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to determine fawn production, adult sex ratio, and population size assume equal observability of all individuals. Similar data from Virginia and Texas showed that there was rarely a period during summer or fall in which each sex and age class was equally observable. Fawns were always less observable than does during July, August, and September, the only period when they were easily differentiated from older deer. Bucks and does were usually seen at the same rate in August and November. Lincoln Index estimates were most accurate in November when all sex and age classes were most nearly equal in observability. Unequal observability was believed caused by differences in feeding and bedding time, not by group size or use of cover. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):709-714 Field counts of white-tailed deer are easily made in many areas, but the potential usefulness of such counts to estimate fawn production, adult sex ratio, and population size has not been demonstrated because of several apparent biases, foremost among which is deer behavior. This paper reports on a 3-year effort to quantify monthly changes in the observability of bucks, does, and fawns in an 826-ha deer-proof enclosure in Virginia and a similar effort conducted for 2 years in Texas. We thank personnel of the Radford Army Ammunition Plant, the Virginia Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, and the Rob and Bessie Welder Wildlife Foundation for their cooperation and assistance. Thanks are also due E. L. Boeker, V. E. Scott, and C. P. Stone for reviewing the manuscript.

Population Status of River Otter in Western Oregon

Population status of the river otter (Lutra canadensis) in western Oregon was evaluated by using structural population modeling. Survival and recruitment rates for the female segment of the population were estimated from the age structure of a sample of 113 female otters obtained from trappers during the 1970-71 and 1971-72 trapping seasons. Age was determined from cementum annuli in canine teeth. Annual survival rates were estimated to be 68, 46, and 73 percent for age-classes 0, 1, and 2-11, respectively. Recruitment was 1.14 female pups per adult female at the beginning of trapping season. Comparison of estimated survival and recruitment rates, by the modeling approach, revealed that the population was stationary. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):692-699 The reported harvest of river otters by fur trappers in Oregon declined 39 percent from the 1966-67 to the 1969-70 trapping seasons (Oregon State Game Commission 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970), indicating a possible decline in otter numbers. The reduced harvest may not have reflected population change because factors other than density may have influenced significantly the size of the otter catch. Preliminary investigation of the relation between fur prices and number of otters harvested in Oregon showed a positive correlation. Also, trappers who were interviewed stated that adverse weather conditions during the trapping seasons (primarily flooding and ice) reduced trapping effort and success. This paper reports a study we began in fall of 1970 to evaluate the status of the otter population in western Oregon, using a method other than the index based on harvest. A method for estimating population trends by evaluating the balance between population recruitment and survival through the use of a structural population model (Henny et al. 1970) was chosen for evaluating the status of the otter population examined in this study. This method appeared well suited to this population for which no census methods existed and available indices were not reliable, but for which a sample of harvested animals was readily available. MATERIALS AND METHODS Carcasses of 113 female otters harvested by trappers in Oregon during the 1970-71 a d 1971-72 trapping seasons (15 Novemb r-15 February) provided material for study. All otters in the sample were harvested in the western half of the state (Fig. 1). Determination of Age Layering in the cementum of an upper canine tooth was used to determine age of otters. Root portions of canines were decalcified in either buffered formic acid (Luna 1960) or 5 percent nitric acid, sectioned with a cryostat, stained in Papanicolaou Hemotoxylin Stain Solution (Fisher Scientific Company), and examined under a microscope (Tabor 1974). Thin, darkstained bands in the cementum could be 1 Study conducted under the auspices of the Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Oregon State University, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Wildlife Management Institute cooperating. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Paper No. 4210. 2 Deceased 7 July 1975. 692 J. Wildl. Manage. 41(4):1977 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.33 on Sun, 20 Nov 2016 04:21:46 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms OREGON RIVER OTTER * Tabor and Wight 693

Variations in Plasma Thyroxine (T 4 ) and Triiodothyronine (T 3 ) in Eastern Wild Turkeys

A total of 185 plasma samples, from 3 different groups of eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), were analyzed for thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) by radioimmunoassay. Of this total, 118 were from 4 pen-reared birds sampled biweekly for 14 months, 43 were from trapped birds, and 25 were from gobblers killed during the spring hunting season. Variations in plasma T, level corresponded to changes in environmental temperature and to the molting process. However, variations in the plasma T3 level of the pen-reared birds could not be correlated with seasonal changes. Total plasma thyroid hormones (T4 + T3) varied in the same manner as T4 alone. There were significant differences (P 0.05) due to sex or age were found in plasma T1, T, or T, + T3. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):650-656 Thyroid hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism), such as that produced by iodine deficiency, thyroidectomy, or feeding or of an antithyroid agent, has been shown to decrease egg production in domestic chickens (Winchester 1939) and to cause cessation of spermatogenesis in roosters (Maqsood 1952). Growth and development are also retarded by hypothyroidism (Winchester and Davis 1952, Singh et al. 1968). A decrease in thyroid function in free ranging populations of eastern wild turkeys might affect their reproductive performance, and thus, result in a decrease in the actual number of turkeys in that population. This study presents the possibility of using plasma levels of thyroid hormones as an indicator of the physiological status of eastern wild turkey populations. Before investigations can be undertaken to determine the existence of thyroid hormone deficiency on populations of free ranging wild turkeys, the following questions need to be answered: (1) What are the ranges for normal plasma levels of thyroid hormones? (2) Do the levels of these hormones exhibit variations due to sex, age, and seasonal changes? (3) Do values differ between samples obtained from pen-reared, trapped, and killed wild turkeys? (4) Since there are 2 principal thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), should both or only 1 be measured? The authors wish to thank W. H. Hamrick, Wildlife Biologist, Game and Fish Division, Alabama Department of Conservation, and J. R. Gwaltney, research assistant, Auburn University, for their assistance in obtaining blood samples from trapped and killed specimens. This research was supported in part by funds from a special appropriation from the Alabama State Legislature to the Alabama Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Androgen Levels and Antler Development in Captive and Wild White-Tailed Deer

Blood samples were collected monthly from 5 captive adult male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) over a 1-year period. A blood sample was also collected, at immobilization, from each of 55 wild adult (12 months old or older) male white-tailed deer captured over approximately 1 year in southwest Virginia. The antlers of each buck were classified according to stage of development at the time of sampling. Androgen levels and the antler cycles for the captive and wild deer were essentially similar and followed a distinct cyclic pattern. Plasma androgen levels (ng/ml) for the captive and wild deer were highest during November (14.03 ? 2.79 (SE) and 31.23 ? 11.03 (SE), respectively) and lowest during June (0.84 ? 0.14 (SE) and 1.14 t 0.36 (SE)). Androgen concentrations were low and antler growth had commenced and was proceeding rapidly in the velvet from March through July. Androgen concentrations were highest and antlers were hardened and polished during November when does are normally bred in southwest Virginia. By December and January, androgen concentrations had diminished substantially, coincident with the initiation of antler shedding. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 47(2):178-183 Antler growth and development are secondary sex characteristics and as such are under hormonal control. Testosterone has the general effect of promoting and maintaining antler maturation. Certain levels of testosterone secretion are necessary for full ossification of the antlers and death of the velvet (Wislocki et al. 1947). Studies of testosterone concentrations in red deer (Cervus elaphus, Lincoln et al. 1970) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, Short and Mann 1966) and with serum testosterone levels in white-tailed deer (McMillin et al. 1974) have shown antler shedding to be related to falling testosterone level, whereas velvet shedding results from a rising level. The white-tailed deer is a valuable trophy animal, so appropriate management should include plans for sustained harvests and suitable trophies. Such a management approach must include a greater understanding of the hormonal relationship involved in the annual reproductive and antler cycle of the male. Previous studies neither considered the hormonal characteristics of captive and wild deer separately, nor provided sample sizes large enough for statistical analysis. Because the relationship between androgens other than testosterone and the antler cycle was never studied, it was important in the present investigation to examine androgens as they relate to the antler cycle. The objectives of this investigation were: (1) to measure monthly variation in plasma androgen levels in captive and wild whitetailed deer and (2) to relate these levels to changes in the antler cycles of the same animals. 1 This study was supported by McIntire-Stennis Project No. 636201. Contribution No. FIW 76-03 from the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences. 2 Present address: Oregon Cooperative Fishery Research Unit, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 77331. 178 J. Wildl. Manage. 41(2):1977 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.141 on Mon, 18 Jul 2016 05:49:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ANDROGEN LEVELS IN WHITE-TAILED DEER ? Mirarchi et al. 179 We thank the personnel of the Radford Army Ammunition Plant for their cooperation, and the Virginia Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit for its financial assistance in maintaining the captive animals, and the use of its vehicles. Technical assistance from J. T. Jones, W. Morehead, and H. Lysy is acknowledged.

The Breeding Ecology of the Trumpeter Swan (Olor Buccinator Ricahrdson) In Yellowstone National Park

This report summarizes the first of two field seasons investigating habitat selection, productivity, and human disturbance of Trumpeter Swans nesting in and near Yellowstone National Park (YNP). The study is supported by the Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, the National Park Service, the National Wildlife Federation, the Northern Rocky Mountain Cooperative Park Study Project, the Trumpeter Swan Society, and the Wildlife Management Institute. I wish to thank the personnel of the Biologist's Office, YNP, and of the Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit for their vital assistance on numerous occasions.

Annual Changes in Spermatozoan Production and Associated Organs of White-Tailed Deer

The left testis and epididymis were collected from each of 60 wild adult (>12 months old) male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virgin'anus) over approximately 1 year in southwest Virginia. Testes and epididymides were weighed separately and numbers of spermatozoa in each organ were determined. All gonadal parameters were at baseline values from February through June. Testis and epididymis weights and testicular spermatozoan numbers rose markedly from June to July. Epididymal spermatozoan numbers increased from July to August as storage of spermatozoa began. Testis and epididymis weights (g) and testicular and epididymal spermatozoan numbers (x 10) increased to maximum values (46.76 ? 8.16 S.E., 7.40 -11.11 S.E., 4.406 ?-t 0.577 S.E., and 6.602 ? 1.600 S.E., respectively) during November when does normally are bred in southwest Virginia. Male deer apparently have breeding capability and sexual libido from the latter part of September through January in the study area. However, the breeding capability of the male had begun to diminish in December as indicated by the regression of all gonadal measurements. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(1):92-99 Deer herds are being managed with everincreasing intensity. The primary management plan has been one directed at increasing productivity of white-tailed deer through habitat manipulation and harvest regulation. However, knowledge of the reproductive physiology of both sexes is necessary to produce optimum sustained deer yields. In particular, certain aspects of the male deer's reproductive physiology need to be known in more detail. Measurements of the testicular and epididymal spermatozoan reserves of wild deer can provide valuable data on the breeding potential of individual animals. Reliable physiological data of this type could contribute to maximization of the male deer harvest and hunter satisfaction. This research was undertaken to define more clearly the nature of reproductive changes during the annual reproductive cycle of the male white-tailed deer. We thank the personnel of the Radford Army Ammunition Plant for their cooperation during the study, and the Virginia Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit for the use of its vehicles throughout the study.

Winter Dormancy in Black Bears in Southwestern Washington

Despite relatively mild weather, black bears (Ursus americanus) in southwestern Washington entered dens and remained for an average of 126 days. Bears entered their dens during a 5-week period that began on 21 October. A significant difference (P < 0.05) was found among the average dates of den entrance of adult females, yearlings, and adult males. Adult females were the first bears to enter their dens; yearlings entered next, and adult males entered last. The stimulus to enter a den probably was provided by the cumulative effect of weather. The actual period of winter dormancy was preceded and followed by periods of increased inactivity. Inactivity during the predenning and postdenning periods was correlated with daily weather, principally maximum daily temperature and precipitation. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 40(3):408-415 Through most of their range, black bears enter dens and remain inactive during winter months; this trait apparently allows them to occupy areas where scarce winter food supplies might otherwise preclude their presence. The timing of entrance into the den and emergence from the den in the spring may be influenced by weather (Northcott and Elsey 1971) or physical condition (Spencer 1955). Erickson (1964) and Jonkel and Cowan (1971) presented data that suggest the timing of these events may differ among the various sex and age groups in a population. Because the black bear is managed almost entirely by hunter-oriented programs, a knowledge of the timing of winter dormancy is important. Also, because estimates of population parameters of the black bear frequently are derived from hunter-killed samples (Willey 1971, P-R Job Prog. Rep., Proj. W-38-R, Vermont Fish Game Dept., Montpelier, Mcllroy 1972), the knowledge of possible sources of bias such as disproportionate availability, which might be caused by differential entry and eme gence dates of the various sex and age groupings, is desirable. Published accounts of winter dormancy in the black bear, with few exceptions, have come from regions of their range characteriz d by climatically severe winters. Poelker and Hartwell (1973) presented the first documented accounts of winter dormancy of the black bear in southwestern Washington, an area of mild winters. They concluded, after following the movements of a subadult female, that the period of winter dormancy was nearly 3 months. The bear, however, had been aroused from dens on n ne occasions, which may have biased the accurate appraisal of both the intensity and duration of winter dormancy. Our objective is to report on the temporal aspect of winter do mancy and associated periods of inactivity of 13 black bears. S. D. Lindzey, R. E. Walker, A. K. Miles, and R. Libby assisted with field work. The Weyerhaeuser Company and Washington Department of Game provided permits necessary to conduct this study. J. M. Welch, Manager, Willapa National Wildlife Refuge, and H. Hardesty provided logistical support during the term of the study. H. C. Black, J. A. Crawford, and A. W. Erickson offered valuable criticism of the manuscript. The late H. M. Wight, Leader, Oregon Coopera1 Study conducted and supported under the auspices of the Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Oregon State University, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and The Wildlife Management Institute cooperating. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Paper No. 4123. 408 J. Wildl. Manage. 40 (3):1976 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.17 on Wed, 31 Aug 2016 04:28:01 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms WINTER DORMANCY IN BLACK BEARS * Lindzey and Meslow 409 tive Wildlife Research Unit, provided stimulus and direction to our efforts.

Use of Sago Pondweed by Waterfowl on the Delta Marsh, Manitoba

Use of Sago Pondweed by Waterfowl on the Delta Marsh, Manitoba

The Estrous Cycle of Coyotes

The estrous cycle in coyotes (Canis latrans) is characterized by a long proestrus (2-3 months). Vaginal smear patterns associated with proestrus, estrus, and metestrus are described. Data from 41 adults indicated estrus begins about 13 March and persists for 10 days. Neither onset date nor duration of estrus differed with body weight or age; however, the number of corpora lutea increased with age. Of 22 juveniles, 19 showed sexual activity but no more than 11 ovulated. In adults, ovulation apparently occurred as early as the 1st and as late as the 9th day of estrus. Left and right ovaries were similar in weight and number of corpora lutea. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 40(2):272-277 Reproduction has not been studied extensively in coyotes. Hamlett (1938) defined the breeding season, estimated the gestation period, and provided some data on the testicular and ovarian changes peculiar to this seasonal breeder. Whiteman (1940) reported on the breeding habits of several captive coyotes and was the first to call attention to the long proestrum period coyotes experience. Gier (1968) provided some information on the morphological and physiological changes associated with the reproductive cycle. Kennelly (1972) described the coyote spermatogenic cycle and estimated sperm transit time in the epididymis. Studies of dog-coyote hybrids have been a further but limited source of information on coyote reproduction (Kennelly and Roberts 1969, Silver and Silver 1969, Mengel 1971). The data reported here on the coyote estrous cycle and related events were gathered as part of a larger program to define more clearly those aspects of coyote reproduction that need to be understood if coyote populations are to be managed rationally. Our primary objective was to gather information to describe the estrous cycle as reflected by vaginal smears. In examining and breeding females coyotes, we accumulated observations on several related topics, and these data are included. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sixty-four female coyotes that were either born in captivity or captured near San Antonio, Texas, and Denver, Colorado, when 3-5 weeks of age were raised and maintained at Denver under routine dog colony procedures. Food (Wayne Dry Dog Food) and water were provided ad libitum. Each coyote was immunized against distemper, hepatitis, and leptospirosis and treated for parasites as needed. The animals were housed one, two, or three to a pen in outdoor concrete-lined runs containing weatherproofed but unheated shelters; illumination was by natural daylight only. Gross and microscopic changes associated with the estrous cycle were observed for both juveniles (less than a year old) and adults. Gier's (1960) technique for making vaginal smears, slightly modified, was used throughout the study. A plastic ca heter approximately 20 cm long with a rubber bulb on one end was inserted into the vagina as far as the cervix, and vaginal fluid was aspirated as the catheter was 1Present address: Massachusetts Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01002. 272 J. Wildl. Manage. 40 (2):1976 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.10 on Mon, 12 Sep 2016 04:35:11 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms EsTRous CYCLE OF COYOTES Kennelly and Johns 273 slowly withdrawn. When natural fluids were insufficient, a small volume of saline (1.0 cc) was introduced. A drop of the vaginal sample was mixed with an equal volume of an aqueous solution of 0.1 percent toluidine blue. After coverslips were placed on them, the smears were examined within 30 minutes at 400x. Routine aseptic surgical procedures were followed for all operations. Pentobarbitol sodium was given (I.V.) to effect and the reproductive organs exposed and examined through a midline incision. In some cases this was the extent of the operation and the incision was closed; in others, the unilateral ovary, oviduct, and uterus were removed before the incision was closed. The contra-lateral ovary, oviduct, and uterus were collected at different intervals following surgery. In this instance, the bitch was killed first with an overdose of pentobarbitol sodium (I.V.). Each ovary was dissected free of associated tissue, weighed, and sectioned transversely with a razor at about 1.5-mm intervals and examined grossly to determine the number of corpora lutea present. Each oviduct was cut just proximal to the tubo-uterine junction and flushed with physiological saline; the flushing medium was checked under a low power microscope (35x) for the presence of ova or zygotes. The basis for defining proestrus, estrus, and metestrus was primarily the cellular pattern observed in the vaginal smear. When appropriate, decisions relative to the onset of estrus were augmented by evidence of acceptance of the male; either copulation was observed or sperm were present in the vaginal smear.

Activity Patterns of Radio-Collared Black Bears in Idaho

Activity patterns of 13 radio-collared black bears (Ursus americanus) in west-central Idaho were studied between June 1973 and December 1974. Bears did not react in a significant way to the disturbances of an investigator. Females were more active than males during the early spring and late fall. Bears were primarily diurnal and crepuscular; however, they were less active and more nocturnal in early spring and late fall than in summer. Phenological patterns of seven key food plants appeared to govern bear movements and habitat preferences. Bears occupied well-defined home ranges that remained stable from year to year. Home range areas of adults varied from 16.6 to 130.3 km2. Daily movements and home range areas of males were usually larger than those of females. Overlap of home ranges was extensive. Bears entered dens between 9 October and 27 November, and emerged in April. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 40(2):340-348 Reports of previous studies of black bears have not included data concerning the nature, time, and duration of their activities (Black 1958, Erickson and Petrides 1964, Jonkel and Cowan 1971). Craighead and Craighead (1965) demonstrated that radiotelemetry permits collection of such data. However, little radiotracking of black bears has been reported. In 1973 the Idaho Department of Fish and Game and the Idaho Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit initiated a cooperative study of the ecology of the black bear. One phase of that study, determination of movements and activities of black bears between June 1973 and December 1974, is reported here. Beecham did the trapping and marking, and Amstrup was responsible for the radiotelemetry studies. We are especially grateful to M. G. Hornocker and L. Oldenburg, without whose administrative and supervisory assistance this project could not have begun. We thank the personnel of the Council Ranger District, Payette National Forest, for providing maps and background information about the study area and for their continuous support.

Effect of Inoculum Source on in Vitro Digestion of Deer Foods

Comparative in vitro digestion trials were conducted with inoculum obtained, via rumen fistula, from a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and a nonlactating Jersey cow to determine the feasibility of using cattle inoculum for predicting in vivo digestibility of deer foods. A modification of the basic two-stage Tilley and Terry technique was used to evaluate four substrates covering a wide range of digestibilities. These were white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), fire cherry (Prunus spp.), timothy hay, and the standard ration fed at The Pennsylvania State University deer research facility. The mean in vitro values ranged from 38.4 percent for cherry to 86.1 percent for the deer ration. Digestibilities obtained with the deer as the inoculum source were quite variable but were not significantly different from values obtained with cow inoculum when tested by analysis of variance. Three of the substrates, cedar, timothy, and deer ration, had been fed previously to deer in conventional digestion trials. In vitro runs with cow inoculum were conducted with two additional substrates of known deer in vivo digestibility, crownvetch hay (Coronilla varia) and red clover hay. The in vitro results obtained with cow inoculum were further analyzed by regression and correlation. A highly significant correlation coefficient (r = 0.99) was shown between cow in vitro and deer in vivo values. It was concluded that the in vitro digestion technique, with the cow as the inoculum source, can be used to estimate accurately digestibilities of deer foods. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 40(2):301-307 Nutrient availability is a major factor affecting the carrying capacity of deer ranges. The diet of wild deer is made up of a variety of foods ranging from highly digestible fruits and seeds to browse of low nutritive value. If a given deer range is to be managed properly, the food of the deer must be evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively. Evaluation of foods by means of conventional digestion trials is expensive and time consuming and requires large amounts of foods; collection of sufficient browse would be extremely difficult. Also several investigators (Dietz et al. 1962, Ullrey et al. 1964, Mautz 1971, Ammann 1973) have encountered problems in using deer in digesti n trials. Therefore, it seems logical to examine the in vitro digestion technique as a method for evaluating deer foods. In vitro digestion techniques have gained ide acceptance and are being used extensively to evaluate forages for domestic ruminants. Several investigators (Johnston t al. 1968, Urness 1969, Ward 1971, Torgerson and Pfander 1971, Snider and Asplund 1974, Robbins et al. 1975) have conducte in vitro digestion trials using woody substrates. However, none of these researchers used a technique specifically adapted to the digestion of woody samples. Mell nberger et al. (1970) modified the Tilley and Terry (1963) technique specifically to optimize digestion of treated and untreated woods. Ammann (1973:93) tested the combined effect of several variables on the in vitro digestion of deer browse and concluded that a modification of the Tilley and Terry technique was nec1Published with the approval of the Director of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station as journal article no. 4921, authorized 18 August 1975. Supported in part by the Pennsylvania Game Commission. Paper no. 200 of the Pennsylvania Wildlife Research Unit. J. Wildl. Manage. 40 (2):1976 301 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.221 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 05:18:18 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 302 INOCULUM SOURCE AND IN VITRO DIGESTION *Palmer et al. essary to reduce sample variation to an acceptable level. The use of domestic ruminants, rather than deer, would greatly facilitate the in vitro digestion technique in that it would eliminate problems associated with the deer as a living rumen fluid donor or the necessity of sacrificing an animal (Urness 1969, Short 1971, Ward 1971) when inoculum is needed. The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of using cattle as the inoculum source for in vitro digestion of deer foods, with a technique specifically modified for browse, and to determine whether this in vitro technique could be used to predict accurately the in vivo digestibility of deer foods. We wish to thank K. R. Bennett for assistance with the statistical analysis of the data, M. A. Ondik and R. C. Mothersbaugh for help in handling the deer, and the Pennsylvania Game Commission and the Pennsylvania Wildlife Research Unit for the use of the deer. MATERIALS AND METHODS