Forest Wildlife Research Articles

Amazonian countryside habitats provide limited avian conservation value

Balancing ever-increasing agricultural and biofuel needs with biodiversity conservation is one of the greatest challenges facing conservation biologists in the 21st century. The conversion of >75 million hectares of forests in Brazilian Amazonia over four decades for agropastoral uses has resulted in the ‘creation’ of a similar-sized amount of non-forest ‘agricultural matrix’ habitats. Despite extensive research on the effects of forest loss and fragmentation on the Amazonian biota, the value of increasingly larger areas of non-forest habitat for forest wildlife remains poorly understood. We conducted 325 fixed-radius point counts of the avifaunal assemblage of non-forest vegetation within a 1200-km2 region along the Amazonian ‘Arc of Deforestation’ in Northern Mato Grosso, Brazil. Our sampling included 2,814 records of 164 species, 15 and 54% of which were recorded in more than 10% and fewer than 2% of all sampling sites, respectively. In particular, nearly 70% of the regional scale avifauna of 560 species failed to use the agricultural matrix, regardless of the persistence of ameliorating structural features, such as isolated trees. At the local scale, higher species richness in the agricultural matrix was best predicted by the presence of relictual trees, and to a lesser extent by standing water and scrubby habitats. The presence of relictual trees, rather than scrub, predicted the occurrence of those forest-dependent species that did use the agricultural matrix. Our results indicate that intensive agricultural production coupled with land sparing would better suit conservation of vulnerable forest species than more extensive ‘wildlife friendly’ agricultural practices that require more land under production to produce the same yield.

Empty forests, empty stomachs? Bushmeat and livelihoods in the Congo and Amazon Basins

SUMMARY Protein from forest wildlife is crucial to rural food security and livelihoods across the tropics. The harvest of animals such as tapir, duikers, deer, pigs, peccaries, primates and larger rodents, birds and reptiles provides benefits to local people worth millions of US$ annually and represents around 6 million tonnes of animals extracted yearly. Vulnerability to hunting varies, with some species sustaining populations in heavily hunted secondary habitats, while others require intact forests with minimal harvesting to maintain healthy populations. Some species or groups have been characterized as ecosystem engineers and ecological keystone species. They affect plant distribution and structure ecosystems, through seed dispersal and predation, grazing, browsing, rooting and other mechanisms. Global attention has been drawn to their loss through debates regarding bushmeat, the “empty forest” syndrome and their ecological importance. However, information on the harvest remains fragmentary, along with understanding of ecological, socioeconomic and cultural dimensions. Here we assess the consequences, both for ecosystems and local livelihoods, of the loss of these species in the Amazon and Congo basins.

Financial and Wildlife Benefits from Crop Tree Release in Pole-Sized Central Hardwood Oak Stands

Abstract We simulated growth and development from 481 plots within 21 even-aged, mixed hardwood stands (21‐35 years old) under no treatment and crop tree release (CTR) treatments using the new Central States Variant of the US Forest Service Forest Vegetation Simulator. We assumed a multiobjective approach focused on financial returns (timber production) and wildlife benefits (provision of species that produce hard mast) in crop tree selection. We compared simulation results by age class, site variables, and species groups. All age classes showed returns on investment (ROI) of 7.8% or greater, but stands 26‐35 years old exhibited greater net present values (NPVs). CTR treatments across site, as delineated by aspect and slope positions, also exhibited higher NPVs, with ROI of 8.4% or greater. North and east aspects yielded higher NPVs than south and west aspects within both no-thinning and CTR treatments, and no strong patterns of NPV or ROI emerged among slope positions. CTR treatment delayed financial maturity by 5‐10 years because of increased growth rates and assumed higher quality stems. Desirable overstory mast trees for wildlife habitat, primarily oaks (Quercus spp.) and hickory (Carya spp.), increased in importance value, and mortality of crop trees declined with CTR in all age classes. Simulated CTR treatments indicated potential benefits to enhance financial and wildlife forest values in even-aged, mixed hardwood stands.

Using multilevel spatial models to understand salamander site occupancy patterns after wildfire

Studies of the distribution of elusive forest wildlife have suffered from the confounding of true presence with the uncertainty of detection. Occupancy modeling, which incorporates probabilities of species detection conditional on presence, is an emerging approach for reducing observation bias. However, the current likelihood modeling framework is restrictive for handling unexplained sources of variation in the response that may occur when there are dependence structures such as smaller sampling units that are nested within larger sampling units. We used multilevel Bayesian occupancy modeling to handle dependence structures and to partition sources of variation in occupancy of sites by terrestrial salamanders (family Plethodontidae) within and surrounding an earlier wildfire in western Oregon, USA. Comparison of model fit favored a spatial N-mixture model that accounted for variation in salamander abundance over models that were based on binary detection/non-detection data. Though catch per unit effort was higher in burned areas than unburned, there was strong support that this pattern was due to a higher probability of capture for individuals in burned plots. Within the burn, the odds of capturing an individual given it was present were 2.06 times the odds outside the burn, reflecting reduced complexity of ground cover in the burn. Ther was weak support that true occupancy was lower within the burned area. While the odds of occupancy in the burn were 0.49 times the odds outside the burn among the five species, the magnitude of variation attributed to the burn was small in comparison to variation attributed to other landscape variables and to unexplained, spatially autocorrelated random variation. While ordinary occupancy models may separate the biological pattern of interest from variation in detection probability when all sources of variation are known, the addition of random effects structures for unexplained sources of variation in occupancy and detection probability may often more appropriately represent levels of uncertainty.

The impact of civil war on forest wildlife in West Africa: mammals in Gola Forest, Sierra Leone

AbstractHuman conflicts may sometimes benefit wildlife by depopulating wilderness areas but there is evidence from Africa that the impacts tend to be negative. The forested states of West Africa have experienced much recent human conflict but there have been no assessments of impacts on the wildlife. We conducted surveys of mammals in the 710-km2Gola Forest reserves to assess the impact of the 1991–2001 civil war in Sierra Leone. Gola is the most important remaining tract of lowland forest in the country and a key site for the conservation of the highly threatened forests of the Upper Guinea region. We found that Gola has survived well despite being in the heart of the area occupied by the rebels. We recorded 44 species of larger mammal, including 18 threatened, near-threatened and endemic species, accounting for all species recorded in pre-war surveys and adding several more (African buffaloSyncerus caffer nanusand water chevrotainHyemoschus aquaticus). Populations of primates were healthy with little evidence of decline. Duiker detection rates were low and further work is required to confirm their numbers as they include five species endemic (or near endemic) to the Upper Guinea region, three of which are threatened. However, the population of African forest elephantsLoxodonta cyclotishas collapsed, with only a few individuals remaining from c. 110 in the mid 1980s. We conclude that peacetime pressures from the bushmeat trade, clearance for agriculture, logging and mining are likely to be far greater for Gola than the pressures from the civil war.

Predicting breeding bird occurrence by stand- and microhabitat-scale features in even-aged stands in the Central Appalachians

Spatial scale is an important consideration when managing forest wildlife habitat, and models can be used to improve our understanding of these habitats at relevant scales. Our objectives were to determine whether stand- or microhabitat-scale variables better predicted bird metrics (diversity, species presence, and abundance) and to examine breeding bird response to clearcut size and age in a highly forested landscape. In 2004–2007, vegetation data were collected from 62 even-aged stands that were 3.6–34.6ha in size and harvested in 1963–1990 on the Monongahela National Forest, WV, USA. In 2005–2007, we also surveyed birds at vegetation plots. We used classification and regression trees to model breeding bird habitat use with a suite of stand and microhabitat variables. Among stand variables, elevation, stand age, and stand size were most commonly retained as important variables in guild and species models. Among microhabitat variables, medium-sized tree density and tree species diversity most commonly predicted bird presence or abundance. Early successional and generalist bird presence, abundance, and diversity were better predicted by microhabitat variables than stand variables. Thus, more intensive field sampling may be required to predict habitat use for these species, and management may be needed at a finer scale. Conversely, stand-level variables had greater utility in predicting late-successional species occurrence and abundance; thus management decisions and modeling at this scale may be suitable in areas with a uniform landscape, such as our study area. Our study suggests that late-successional breeding bird diversity can be maximized long-term by including harvests >10ha in size into our study area and by increasing tree diversity. Some harvesting will need to be incorporated regularly, because after 15 years, the study stands did not provide habitat for most early successional breeding specialists.

Integrated farm environmental management and biodiversity conservation: a case study in the caratinga biological station (Minas Gerais State, Brazil)

The Caratinga Biological Station (CBS) is an important preserve of the Brazilian Atlantic Rain Forest, defined as a national priority for the conservation of this highly fragmented biome and shelter to the largest existing population of the northern muriqui, the critically threatened largest monkey species of the Americas. Extensive research on the demography of this population has indicated favorable conditions for growth, pointing out the importance of promoting expansion of the locally available habitat. In the present study, rural establishments neighboring the CBS were involved in a participatory program for wildlife corridor restoration, by means of the application of a 'System for Weighted Environmental Impact Assessment of Rural Activities' (APOIA-NovoRural), which consists of 62 indicators integrated in five sustainability dimensions: i) Landscape ecology; ii) Environmental quality; iii) Socio-cultural values; iv) Economic values; and v) Management and administration. Results regarding the Landscape ecology indicators (those most related with fauna protection) attested to the adequate performance of productive activities in the studied establishments, while pointed out the need for improvements in natural habitats conservation. The Environmental Management Reports issued to the farmers included mapped recommendations for forest restoration and wildlife corridors implementation, favoring the connection of the main preserved area of CBS with the second largest forest fragment in the region.

Eco-development in Orissa's protected areas: a participatory approach to conserving forest biodiversity and alleviating poverty piloted in Satkosia

Orissa State in East India has a wealth of natural forests that range from coastal mangroves in the Bay of Bengal to dry and moist types of tropical deciduous forests in the Eastern Ghats. Approximately 37% of the State is classified as forest, including a well-planned network of protected areas (PAs) that comprises 2 national parks and 18 sanctuaries. Much of the remaining forest is under huge pressure from forest fires, livestock grazing, slash-and-burn agriculture, wildlife poaching, and illegal or unregulated collection of fuel wood, timber and other forest products. Major initiatives are underway in Orissa to conserve its natural forest biodiversity. The Orissa Forestry Sector Development Project (OFSDP), beginning in 2006, started to focus on providing inclusive support to local communities living within and around PAs by promoting and enhancing alternative livelihoods through community participation to reduce dependence on forest resources. The participatory processes that were piloted and upscaled in Satkosia Tiger Reserve have helped park managers and policy makers, for the first time in Orissa, to understand and value ‘Village Eco-development’ as an essential tool in PA management. The experience and lessons learnt have been formulated into guidelines and field manuals for use throughout the State's network of PAs, paving the way for meaningful participatory eco-development. This paper describes the participatory process and mechanisms evolved and upscaled to engage with local communities in eco-development partnerships; defines the principles and mechanisms that underpin such partnerships; and demonstrates how management interventions can be effectively and equitably prioritised towards those members of a community most dependent on forest resources in order to maximise biodiversity conservation. Lessons learned include the importance of developing a shared vision at the outset, joint government-community collaboration in building capacities, independent expert facilitation and long-term nurturing of participatory processes, provision of well-defined livelihood enhancement opportunities and experiential learning among all stakeholders.

Using multitemporal satellite imagery to characterize forest wildlife habitat: The case of ruffed grouse

Like many similar forest species, ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus; hereafter grouse) populations in the central and southern Appalachians (CSA) are strongly affected by forest composition at the landscape scale. Because these populations are in decline, managers require accurate forest maps to understand how stand level characteristics affect the survival and reproductive potentials of individual birds to design management strategies that improve grouse abundance. However, traditional mapping techniques are often labor-intensive and cost-prohibitive. We used a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from each of 8 Landsat images and the digital elevation model (DEM)-derived variables of elevation and aspect in discriminant analyses to classify 7 study areas to 3 overstory classes (evergreen, hardwoods, and oak) and distinguish evergreen and deciduous understories in the CSA, 2000–2002. Overall accuracy was 82.08%, varying from 83.59% for oak to 79.79% for hardwoods overstories. Periods with large phenological differences among classes, particularly early and late spring, were most useful for discriminating overstory vegetation types. Alternatively, winter NDVI in combination with elevation was critical for differentiating evergreen and deciduous understories. Multitemporal image sets used in concert with DEMs provided a cost-effective alternative to hyperspectral sensors for improving wildlife habitat classification accuracy with Landsat imagery. This allowed for enhanced understanding of grouse-habitat relationships and habitat affects on grouse populations that allowed for improved management. With the incorporation of simple adjustments for local forest plant species phenology into the model, it may be used to better classify wildlife habitat of similar species in areas with comparable forest communities and topography. Multitemporal images can also be used to differentiate grassland communities, monitor wetlands, and serve as baseline data for detecting changes in land use over longer temporal scales, making their use in forest wildlife habitat studies cost-justifiable.

Measuring ecologically important quantities at relevant operational scales: An example using the dusky flycatcher in selectively logged forests in Idaho

Abstract Effective management of forest wildlife requires information about habitat features that can be altered by operations, if those habitat features promote reproductive success and survival, and if changes in organism density influence reproductive success and survival. Habitat selection studies often provide the first type of information, although relatively few studies examine how different selection decisions or densities of organisms influence fitness measures or measure habitat features at relevant operational scales. We examined patterns of habitat selection and estimated how habitat use, territory size, and conspecific density were associated with territory success (probability of a territory producing one or more fledglings) for the dusky flycatcher in 2002–2003 on eight study plots in managed grand fir ( Abies concolor ) forests in Idaho, USA. Flycatchers selected territories with greater cover of deciduous vegetation in two different height strata (1–2 and 3–4 m) and reduced cover of conifers less than 4 cm dbh compared to what was available. While flycatchers selected habitat characteristics at the territory scale, model selection results did not support any associations between vegetation features and territory success. Territory success had weak positive associations, for a given territory size, with conspecific density, although the relationship was highly variable. An interaction between territory size and density was not supported. These results are consistent with the view that avian breeding habitat selection occurs at multiple scales, and that the nest site scale may explain more of the variance in reproductive success than larger scales. Our results suggest that operational management of vegetation features, which often occurs at the stand scale, may not influence variation in critical demographic metrics. Increasing total shrub cover of commonly used plant species should benefit the dusky flycatcher, as well as other shrub-nesting forest birds, but stand-level habitat alterations alone cannot be relied upon to increase reproductive success, an important component of population change.

Assessment of community preference rankings of potential environmental effects of climate change using the method of paired comparisons

The preference rankings of a rural population in central British Columbia, Canada of potential environmental effects of climate change were assessed using the psychometric method of paired comparison. The survey results were used to develop an interval scale for eight hypothetical, but potential, environmental effects including major and minor impacts to water and fish, forest ecosystems, wildlife, and scenic and recreation. Interval scales were developed for the total sample as well as sub-samples made up of females, males, town residents, non-town residents, respondents with high school or less education, and respondents with at least some post-secondary education. Major impacts on water and fish were considered to be the most serious effects followed by major impacts on forest ecosystems and major impacts on wildlife. Major effects on scenic and recreation were ranked below minor effects on water and fish. Responses from the sub-samples were similar with some minor deviations. For example, females ranked major impacts on wildlife higher than males, and males ranked major impact on scenic and recreation higher than females. However, the overall rankings of females and males were highly correlated. This study showed climate change effects on environmental goods and services in terms of human preferences. A human preferences perspective (combined with biophysical assessments) is required for determining local adaptation priorities and for guiding impacts and adaptation research. The methodology and approach has potential for broader application.

Use of Forest Edges by Free-Ranging Cats and Dogs in an Urban Forest Fragment

Free-ranging Felis catus (Domestic Cat) and Canis familiaris (Domestic Dog) can greatly impact native prey populations, but little is known about their occurrence in urban forest fragments. In this study, we used camera traps to photograph (capture) cats, dogs, and native wildlife in a 409-ha urban forest in Birmingham, AL from Jan–Apr 2007. Habitat treatments included forest interior and forest edges by industrial lands, neighborhoods with higher house values, and neighborhoods with lower house values. We employed both conservative (n = 31) and liberal (n = 64) methods of tallying the number of individual dogs, cats, and native mammals captured. Dogs and cats combined comprised 19% (conservative) and 26% (liberal) of all photographic captures. Procyon lotor (Raccoon) were the most abundant of the 7 native species at 32% (conservative) and 53% (liberal) of all captures. Dogs were more abundant in neighborhood edges, and cats were more abundant in the forest interior. Cats and dogs combined were 75% (conservative) and 86% (liberal) of captures from the forest interior. Captures of native species were far more frequent in neighborhood edges (conservative = 86.9%, and liberal = 92.3%) than in other treatments. These findings demonstrate that exotic predators can be an important ecological presence in certain portions of urban forest fragments, and more extensive studies of their impact are needed.

Wearable Forest Clothing System: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction

Wearable Forest is a garment that bioacoustically interacts with distant wildlife in a remote forest through a networked remote-controlled speaker and microphone. It expresses the unique bioacoustic beauty of nature and allows users to interact with a forest in real time through a network to acoustically experience a distant forest soundscape, thus merging humans and nature without great environmental impact. This novel interactive sound system can create a sense of unity between users and a remote soundscape, enabling users to feel a sense of belonging to nature even in the midst of a city. This paper describes the theory of interaction between the Human and the Biosphere through the design process of the Wearable Forest concept.

Forest Wildlife Management and Conservation

Forests are critical for the world's biodiversity, the regulation of the Earth's climate, and the provision of goods and services for humans. This review focuses on four broad topics: (1) key processes threatening forest biodiversity; (2) broad strategies for mitigating threatening processes; (3) climate change and forest biodiversity; and, (4) plantations and biodiversity. How key issues within these broad topics are addressed will have profound effects on forest biodiversity and the Earth's climate. A significant global problem for biodiversity conservation is the conversion of natural forests to other land uses, both in developing and developed nations; ways must be urgently identified to halt forest conversion. When forests are logged for timber or pulpwood and then regenerated, impacts on biodiversity are harder to quantify than when forests are converted to other land uses. Hence, the effectiveness of efforts to mitigate such impacts (where they occur) is frequently not well known. Climate change may result in substantial changes to forest ecosystems, and its effects may interact in additive or cumulative ways with other human disturbances in forests, although work on such combinations of impacts is in its infancy. The establishment of plantations of trees is frequently proposed to sequester large amounts of carbon and/or produce biofuels to mitigate the climate-change effects. However, there is potential for perverse outcomes, such as biodiversity loss where plantation establishment is narrowly focused and other environmental values are ignored.

The evolution of natural floodplain forests in South Moravia between 1973 and 2005

Since the mid-1970’s, the landscape around the confluence of the Morava and Dyje rivers has undergone substantial changes related to the drop of water table caused by water management measures undertaken on both ri-vers. Periodical spring floods are among the phenomena lost due to ameliorations. In this study, the reaction of forest ecosystems to the decrease in soil moisture is assessed on the basis of changes in species composition of the herb layer as well as of the known requirements of individual recorded taxa and the entire herb synusiae for the water content of soils. The results confirm that the species with the greatest demand for water disappear over time. The tendency of decreasing Ellenberg indicator values of the herb layers within the phytocoenological relevés is obvious also with the consideration of the influence of different numbers of species recorded on the same plots in different years of the survey. The changes are most visible in the dampest habitats, while elevated sites, so-called “hrudy”, tend to be most stable. The intensity of vegetation changes increases in direct proportion to the altitude of the sites. The process of changes in some habitats caused by the alteration of the water regime has to be separated from the changes in the vegetation structure, which are easier to observe optically. The limiting factor of their development in the given conditions is the forest wildlife. After the elimination of wildlife’s influence, the woody species synusia differentiates in height. A qualitative shift is represented by the recession of the formerly dominant <I>Quercus robur</I> on the main level, and its gradual replacement by other species. The impact of changes going on in the woody synusia on selected characteristics of the herb layer are included in the analyses.

Long-Term Trends in Breeding Birds in an Old-Growth Adirondack Forest and the Surrounding Region

Breeding bird populations were sampled between 1954 and 1963, and 1990 and 2000 in an old-growth forest, the Natural Area of Huntington Wildlife Forest (HWF), in the Adirondack Mountains of New York. Trends were compared with data from regional North American Breeding Bird Surveys (BBS) and from a forest plot at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. Trends for 22 species in the HWF Natural Area were negative, eight were positive, and one was zero; 20 were significant. Fifteen of 17 long-distance migrants declined, whereas 7 of 14 short-distance migrants and permanent residents declined. Most (74%) HWF Natural Area species, despite differences in sampling periods and local habitat features, matched in sign of trend when compared to Adirondack BBS routes, 61% matched northeastern BBS routes, and 71% matched eastern United States BBS routes, while 66% matched Hubbard Brook species. The agreement in population trends suggests that forest interior birds, especially long-distance migrants, are affected more by regional than local factors. The analysis indicated that bird trends generated from BBS routes may not be as biased toward roads as previously suggested.

Mercury deposition in the Adirondacks: A comparison between precipitation and throughfall

The volume-weighted mean (VWM) Hg concentrations and the total cumulative fluxes in deciduous throughfall (6.6 ng L −1 and 12.0 μg m −2, respectively) were statistically higher than in precipitation (4.9 ng L −1 and 11.6 μg m −2, respectively) during 2 years of sampling at the Huntington Wildlife Forest in Newcomb, NY. Seasonally, the VWM Hg concentrations and the Hg fluxes in both precipitation and throughfall were lowest in winter and highest in summer. Due to the wash-off of dry deposition and foliar leaching, concentrations in throughfall were almost 50% higher than those in precipitation during the leaf-on period, while concentrations in throughfall were slightly higher than (or similar to) those in precipitation during the leaf-off period. During the 2 years of sampling, the total deposited cumulative flux in precipitation and deciduous throughfall were very similar (11.6 μg Hg m −2 and 12.0 μg Hg m −2, respectively), because the higher concentrations in throughfall were offset by smaller throughfall depths. Meteorological analysis indicated that the precipitation events resulting in the highest Hg fluxes were associated with trajectories that passed through regions of Midwest where major Hg sources including coal/oil-fired power plants and waste incinerators are located.

Comparing Classification Systems for Ponderosa Pine Snags in Northern Arizona

Abstract The degree to which snag classification systems predict actual snag “age” (time since tree death) is rarely known. We used dendrochronology to determine the death dates of 79 large (more than 40 cm dbh, more than 3 m in height) ponderosa pine snags in northern Arizona and compared the snag ages to those predicted by a commonly used simulation model and to five classification systems. The methods are limited to trees for which intact tree-ring samples could be extracted, but the data provided evidence of some snags standing for long periods (to 141 years) and correlation of snag traits with age. The simulation model underestimated snag age in the first three categories. Mean ages of snags in the last category were estimated accurately but with low precision. Comparison of snag ages to their classification in five systems showed that bole breakage was unrelated to snag age, that limb loss occurs at divergent rates between individual trees, and that wood decay does not necessarily proceed sequentially. A system based on the attrition of bark from snag boles proved useful for distinguishing snags by physical traits, but different classification systems may be needed to meet specific needs for assessing past forest structure and wildlife habitat.

Technical guide to forest wildlife habitat management in New England

Forest wildlife populations and their habitats in New England are products of the land—its condition after centuries of human use and natural processes. Conditions are never static; they are changing continually in response to disturbance and succession. Habitats for all species once were provided continuously by wind, fire, and other disturbances. Native prairies, shrublands, forests opened by burns and blowdowns, and subsequent forest regrowth provided habitats for a diverse New England fauna in a shifting mosaic across the landscape. This is no longer the case. Development of historically open habitats, fire control, and the decline of agriculture have changed the landscape dramatically. Today in much of New England, forests are mature and largely unmanaged. Wildlife species associated with mature forests—fisher and pileated woodpecker, for example—have become common. Species associated with old fields, brushlands, and young forests—field sparrows, eastern towhees, and New England cottontails, among many others—have declined precipitously as their habitats have been developed or have reverted to forest. This volume is a compilation of forest management practices that are now necessary for creating a range of forest habitat conditions to maintain or enhance forest wildlife diversity in the region.

Visual Simulations of Forest Wildlife Habitat Structure, Change, and Landscape Context in New England

Abstract Visualization is a powerful tool for depicting projections of forest structure and landscape conditions, for communicating habitat management practices, and for providing a landscape context to private landowners and to those concerned with public land management. Recent advances in visualization technology, especially in graphics quality, ease of use, and relative ease of learning, make it readily usable by natural resource managers. Concerns about the appearance of even-aged practices, which have the greatest potential to enhance wildlife diversity, have constrained forest management. We developed realistic visual simulations to display the outcomes of forest management practices used to create and maintain a range of wildlife habitat conditions in New England, and to project future landscape appearance for periods up to 100 years. We describe the simulation process so that it can be used elsewhere. Realistic visual images can be a useful tool to clearly display habitat management alternatives for landowners and participants in public land management and to improve communication about the long-term appearance of the landscape as periodic treatments are applied.