Wild Turkey Populations Research Articles

Influence of Temperature and Precipitation on Survival of Wild Turkey Poults

New methods for determining annual trends in wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) populations are desirable, especially when heavily hunted populations are managed with limited resources. Cost-effective indices to population trends could result from an increased understanding of relations between environmental factors and reproductive success. We examined the influence of heating degree-days (HDD) and deviation from normal precipitation on the 25-day survival of eastern wild turkey poults (M. g. silvestris) in southcentral New York during 1991-93. The proportion of poults surviving to 25 days posthatch was associated negatively with mean HDD/day during the first week posthatch (P < 0.001) and associated negatively with mean deviation from normal daily precipitation during the second week posthatch (P = 0.08). Observed survival rates of poults within broods were not highly associated (r = 0.46, n = 26) with weather-based predictions of survival within broods, but observed and predicted estimates of annual poult survival were similar. This similarity suggested weather might be a good predictor of annual rates of poult survival.

Reproductive Characteristics of a Wild Turkey Population in Central Mississippi

Long-term investigations into wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) reproduction are needed to allow for annual fluctuations, illuminate trends not evident from short-term data, and provide data for effective sustainable management of the wild turkey resource. We used 13 years (1984-96) of continuous data to estimate reproductive parameters of a wild turkey population in central Mississippi. Mean rates of reproductive parameters were 72.3% for first-nest initiation rates, 27.9% for first-nest success, 34.8% for renest initiation, and 24.6% for renest success. Median date of incubation ranged from 12 April to 1 May. Juvenile hens did not contribute to reproduction. Hen success declined significantly over time and reflected a decreasing population. Most (51.1%) nest failures were attributed to predation. Poult survival until late July-August was 25.5%. Winter weather did not influence reproductive parameters, and hen experience did not increase nest success. Mean hen success for this population was the lowest reported for any eastern wild turkey (M. g. silvestris) population. Low hen success via lack of productivity from renest attempts, lack of juvenile hen reproduction, and low nest success may have contributed to the population decline. A simplistic population model indicated that, given current reproduction and hen survival, maintaining wild turkeys as a closed population on our area is doubtful.

Reproductive Ecology of Eastern Wild Turkeys in Southwestern Wisconsin

Developing sound harvest strategies for wild turkey populations requires geographically specific information on population dynamics. The absence of this information prompted us to investigate the reproductive ecology of a hunted population of eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in southwestern Wisconsin during 1989-92. Nesting rates averaged 0.927 and were higher for adults than subadults (P = 0.003, n = 220). No age-specific differences were detected for renesting rates (P = 0.413, n = 147), nest success for first (P = 0.549, n = 199) or second (P = 0.685, n = 81) attempts, mean clutch size (P = 0.300, n = 37), or mean number of eggs hatched (P = 0.304, n = 24). Hen success averaged 0.217 (n = 212). Hen success was higher for adults than subadults (P = 0.047) and did not vary among years (P = 0.254). Mammalian predation was the primary factor affecting reproductive success. The level of recruitment during the study was inadequate to maintain the population.

Wild Turkey Population Dynamics in Southwestern Wisconsin

We studied the population dynamics of eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in southwestern Wisconsin during 1987-94 to better understand the effects of variation in reproduction and fall harvest on growth of a northern population. We combined yearly estimates of reproduction, survival, and population size in a stochastic population model to estimate the finite rate of increase of the population. Our model indicated recruitment during 1989-92 was inadequate to offset observed mortality: the finite rate of increase was 0.831 ± 0.097 (x ± SE). The simulated trend was corroborated by declines in spring harvest success and observations of turkeys by deer hunters. We illustrate that population growth is affected by variation in both reproduction and fall harvest rates. The population decline was apparently caused by reduced recruitment in combination with reduced hen survival associated with initiation of fall hunting. The decline in recruitment was associated with cold and wet spring weather (r 2 = 0.92, P < 0.001). Analysis of 103 years of weather data suggested the low level of recruitment observed during 1989-92 may be representative of the long-term recruitment potential of this population. More conservative harvest strategies may be appropriate for northern populations.

Mycoplasmas in wild turkeys living in association with domestic fowl.

One hundred and nineteen Merriam's wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) and 31 domestic chickens coexisting on a ranch in west-central Colorado (USA) were surveyed for mycoplasmosis by serologic and cultural methods. Although no clinical signs were apparent in any wild turkeys tested, 51 (43%) had positive rapid plate agglutination (RPA) reactions for M. gallisepticum (MG) and/or M. synoviae (MS); 37% of 56 adults and 48% of 63 subadults were classified as positive reactors to MG and/or MS. No turkeys tested in 1992 (n = 61) and 17 (29%) of 58 turkeys tested in 1993 were RPA-positive for M. meleagridis (MM). Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test results were negative for MG, MS and MM as were most enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test reactions (MG = 99%, MS = 93%, MM = 87%). Immunoblotting showed mild to moderate reactivity to MG proteins in 49% of 41 samples tested. Most chickens were strongly positive for MS by RPA (81%), HI (58%) and ELISA (87%); 48% also were positive for MG by RPA but all were MG-negative by HI and ELISA. No pathogenic mycoplasmas were isolated from either group of birds. Mycoplasma gallopavonis was commonly identified from the wild turkeys, and M. gallinaceum was isolated from both the chickens and wild turkeys. In a transmission study conducted in 1994, disease-free domestic turkeys failed to seroconvert when co-housed with wild turkeys from this population that were RPA-positive for MG. Collectively, the results of this study were inconclusive regarding the status of pathogenic mycoplasmas within this wild turkey population.

Eastern Wild Turkey Reproduction in an Area Subjected to Flooding

We used cohort analyses and population cohort matrices to model a wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) population under perturbed (i.e., man-induced flooding on 3-yr intervals) and unperturbed (i.e., non-flood) conditions. The net reproductive rate (R o ) of a cohort in which reproduction in the hatching-year (HY) age class was perturbed by flooding dropped to 0.460 from R o = 1.383 for unperturbed cohorts. The R o of cohorts in which only after-hatching-year (AHY) age classes were exposed to flooding was >1.0. Cohort analyses demonstrated the importance to the population of nesting by HY hens and the significant effects on cohort reproductive potential of exposing the HY age class to flooding. Evaluation of population cohort matrices also suggested that flooding on a 3-year interval precludes sufficient reproduction to maintain this wild turkey population.

Survival and Reproduction of Female Wild Turkeys in New York

Annual fluctuations of northern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) populations often are attributed to high winter mortality. However, studies conducted in agricultural environments have demonstrated that seasonal survival can be highest during winter, suggesting other factors are more important to annual population change. We examined survival and reproduction of female eastern wild turkeys in south-central New York during 1990-93 and conducted a sensitivity analysis to determine the relative importance of demographic parameters to annual population change. Seasonal survival rates (n = 238) were 0.800 for spring, 0.855 for summer, 0.834 for fall, and 0.873 for winter. Fall survival rates varied by years (P < 0.01) and were higher during years of above average hen success. Annual survival rates averaged 0.498, and crude annual mortality rates (M) averaged 0.321 for predation and 0.117 for poaching, hunting, and wounding combined. Subadult females had lower nesting rates (P = 0.002, n = 201), lower renesting rates (P = 0.001, n = 115), and lower hen success rates (P = 0.02, n = 196) than adult females. Nest success averaged 37.9% (n = 232) and was highest (P = 0.005) during years with average to below average May rainfall. We observed annual variation in nest success (P = 0.001), hen success (P = 0.003), and hatching rates (P = 0.04). Poult survival averaged 40.0% (n = 605) and did not vary among years (P = 0.73). Nest success was the primary factor contributing to annual population change. We suggest that annual fluctuations of northern populations in mixed agricultural and forested environments rarely result from variability of annual survival and may result from variability of annual nest success and poult survival. Northern populations subjected to infrequent severe winters in mixed agricultural and forested environments likely would benefit more from enhancement of nesting and brood-rearing habitat.

Corrigendum: Genetic Structure of Reintroduced Wild Turkey and White-Tailed Deer Populations

Corrigendum: Genetic Structure of Reintroduced Wild Turkey and White-Tailed Deer Populations

Nesting Habitat and Nesting Success of Eastern Wild Turkeys in the Arkansas Ozark Highlands

I studied nesting habitat of the eastern Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in the Arkansas Ozarks during the breeding seasons of 1992 and 1993. Hens selected cover with greater complexity and variability in habitat structure than was generally available. Vegetation in preferred cover types provided substantial concealment at 0-1 m height. Hens selected large patches of habitat (about 80 m in diameter) for nesting. Areas adjacent to nests had characteristics intermediate between nest and non-use sites. Open overstory at nest site and dense understory adjacent to the nest-site areas were apparently used as cues in nest habitat selection early in spring. Parameters correlated with enhanced lateral and overhead concealment of the nest site contributed the most to discrimination between used and non-used sites. Successful and depredated nests were best discriminated when data were considered on a larger spatial scale. Visual obstruction of the nest at 0-1 m height and variable nesting habitat appearance contributed the most to avoiding nest predation. Vegetation characteristics at renest sites were more variable, resulting in habitat appearance more diverse than that of first nest sites. I suggest that nest predation influences habitat selection here and availability of suitable nesting habitat may be a limiting factor for Wild Turkey populations in the Arkansas Ozarks.

Genetic Structure of Reintroduced Wild Turkey and White-Tailed Deer Populations

Although reintroductions are an important management tool, little is known about their effects on the genetic structure of wildlife species. We studied wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations from the eastern United States to determine if the genetic similarity of populations was more affected by geographic proximity or by possible gene flow resulting from reintroduction programs. We examined allele frequencies at 5 polymorphic loci for turkeys from 22 locations and at 15 polymorphic loci for deer from 21 locations and compared genetic distances among populations for both species to geographic distances and reintroduction histories. For both species, genetic distances were smaller between pairs of populations that either had individuals transferred between them or that had both received individuals from a common source population than were distances between pairs of populations that had not been connected by reintroductions (P < 0.001). Geographic proximity of populations of both turkeys and deer was not associated with genetic similarity (P = 0.280 and 0.520, respectively). Reintroductions may have obscured genetic patterns resulting from other evolutionary processes such as gene flow through dispersal. Additionally, post-reintroduction dispersal has not erased the genetic contributions of reintroduced individuals to the populations they established. Reintroduction programs should attempt to create populations with high levels of genetic diversity and avoid unnecessary disruption of the evolutionary relationships among populations of a species. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 58(4):698-711

Evaluating Spatial Pattern of Wildlife Habitat: A Case Study of the Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)

-The evaluation of the spatial configuration of habitat is often difficult due to large geographic areas to be evaluated and the subjective nature of spatial pattern assessment. Habitat quality for wild turkey populations has a spatial component related to the arrangement of habitat elements across large geographic areas. Indices of habitat fragmentation were used to quantitatively describe the components of habitat assessment now evaluated subjectively by experienced wild turkey biologists, including a proximity index that distinguishes isolated forest patches from those that are part of a cluster of forest patches. These indices were used to mathematically classify landscapes into discrete quality categories and the classifications were compared to subjective assessments made by experienced turkey biologists. Mathematical classifications of landscapes agreed with expert judgment when the proximity index and proportion of forest were used to characterize the spatial pattern of forest habitat. None of the indices alone were adequate to correctly classify all test landscape samples. Mean values of the indices were compared between study areas of different quality as wild turkey habitat. Study areas of optimal and suboptimal quality were more different from each other than were suboptimal and poor study sites. The proximity index is a valuable quantitative measure of habitat spatial pattern that provides information related to subjective, expert assessment of landscape suitability for use by wild turkeys. These quantitative measures add objectivity to the assessment of the spatial components of wild turkey habitat, and provide additional information that can be used to help identify the best potential turkey release sites. These methods can be extended to the evaluation of the spatial distribution of habitat for other wildlife species, and can provide quantitative spatial information for hypothesis testing.

Renesting by Rio Grande Wild Turkeys after Brood Loss

Although the importance of renesting by wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) after clutch loss has been documented, the contribution to turkey populations of renesting after brood loss is unknown. Consequently, we examined renesting capacity of an introduced Rio Grande wild turkey (M. g. intermedia) population in southwestern Oregon from 1989 through 1991. Eleven of 15 adult hens initiated 13 nests after losing broods (within 2 weeks of hatching first or second clutches). Of these, 9 nests were depredated or abandoned, and 41 nests hatched. Clutch size, fertility, egg hatching success, and poults hatched per nest did not differ between renest attempts after brood loss and renest attempts after clutch loss (P = 0,65-0,95)

Influence of Fragmentation and Bottlenecks on Genetic Divergence of Wild Turkey Populations

Abstract: There are few empirical studies of the effects of human‐induced fragmentation and bottlenecks on the genetic structure of field populations. Assessment of these effects is necessary to evaluate the relevance of predictions obtained from simulation and theoretical models to the management of wild populations. The genetic structure of populations of the Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), which have been heavily influenced by human activities, was examined using allozyme electrophoresis Allele frequencies at four polymorphic loci were estimated for 27 localities using 461 turkeys The estimated proportion of genetic variation resulting from differences among populations (Fst= 0.102) was one of the highest reported for any avian species and was also much higher than that observed between turkey populations that had not passed through known bottlenecks Almost all of the variation (89%) among populations was accounted for by differences between groups of populations with different histories of manipulation Fragmented distributions and population bottlenecks due to human activities appear to have increased genetic differentiation among populations of wild turkeys. This observation agrees with theoretical predictions concerning the effects of isolation and bottlenecks on the genetic structure of field populations.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PERSISTENCE OF MYCOPLASMA GALLISEPTICUM IN AN EASTERN POPULATION OF WILD TURKEYS

Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection had been confirmed by culture and serology among wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in close association with domestic fowl on Cumberland Island, Georgia (USA) in 1980. In 1988, wild turkeys were surveyed by serologic and cultural methods for evidence of M. gallisepticum. Chickens (Gallus gallus) and guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) from the site where the disease was originally detected also were tested by serologic and cultural methods for M. gallisepticum infections. There was no conclusive evidence that M. gallisepticum was present in wild turkeys or guinea fowl. In contrast, most chickens were strongly seropositive for M. gallisepticum, suggesting that they had been infected, although the organism was not recovered by cultural or bioassay methods. Other species of Mycoplasma isolated were M. gallopavonis from wild turkeys, M. gallinaceum and M. pullorum from chickens, and M. gallinaceum from guinea fowl. It appears that M. gallisepticum has not persisted or spread in the wild turkey population on Cumberland Island, despite continued contact by some wild turkeys with suspected carrier chickens.

Brood Habitat Use by Eastern Wild Turkeys in Eastern Texas

We used radio telemetry to study habitat use by eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) females with broods on intensively managed pine (Pinus spp.) forest land in eastern Texas in 1980 and 1981. We sampled habitat at 550 locations for 9 females with broods 1-114 days old and 164 randomly located plots. Females with broods _30 days old selected (P _ 0.10) pole-timber in upland areas and broods >30 days old selected sawtimber in bottomland areas. Low timber stocking, low density of midstory trees, abundant herbaceous ground cover, and control burned areas were selected (P 0.10) by all broods. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 53(2):479-482 Quality of habitat for turkeys is often assessed by winter carrying capacity; however, habitat quality during the brood-rearing season (spring and summer) may be more important in limiting wild turkey populations (Hillestad and Speake 1970). Hurst (1981) emphasized that information on habitat preferences of turkeys is available; however, specific habitat characteristics have not been adequately measured or quantified. Our objective was to assess habitat characteristics for eastern wild turkey females with broods on intensively managed pine forest land in eastern Texas. Temple-Eastex Incorporated, Diboll, Texas, allowed us to use the study area. The Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission and the Mississippi Department of Wildlife Conservation supplied turkeys for the study. Funding was provided by the Wildlife Management Institute, American Petroleum Institute, Caesar Kleberg Research Foundation, and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Federal Aid Project W-108-R-4. This is Article TA-22949 of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University.

Habitat Use by Female Eastern Wild Turkeys in Southeastern Oklahoma

We radiomarked 41 adult female eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) to determine home range and habitat use on intensively managed forests in the Ouachita Mountains, southeastern Oklahoma. We monitored turkeys during 1983-84 on a 19,000 ha management area consisting of naturally regenerated stands (66%), 1-13-year-old pine (Pinus spp.) plantations (31%), pastures and hay meadows (2%), and developed areas (1%). Mean seasonal home-range size was 225 + 90, 865 ? 85, 780 + 161, and 459 ? 125 (SE) ha in winter, spring, summer, and fall, respectively. Use patterns in 5 age classes of pine plantations were related to stem densities and potential food production. Turkeys avoided (P 41 ha], cattle grazing, and hog foraging) may pose a threat to wild turkey populations in the region (Natl. Wildl. Fed. 1982). The purpose of our study was to determine home-range size and habitat use by female eastern wild turkeys on an intensively managed commercial forest. We thank D. M. Leslie, Jr., R. L. Lochmiller, and J. H. Shaw for reviewing the manuscript. We also thank J. M. Gray and F. S. Schitoskey for project support and S. W. Conrady and M. E. Stuart for help with field work. Special thanks go to R. E. Thackston and C. E. Woods of the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation and M. A. Melchiors and D. W. Moore of the Weyerhaeuser Company. This study was supported in part by a contribution from the Oklahoma Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project W-137-R and conducted under the auspices of the Oklahoma Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit: The Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation, Oklahoma State University, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Wildlife Management Institute cooperate with the Oklahoma Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit. STUDY AREA AND METHODS Our study area was located on the Weyerhaeuser Company Mountain Fork Wildlife Management Area (19,000 ha) in McCurtain County, Oklahoma, and included naturally regenerated stands (66%), pine plantations (31%), pastures and hay meadows (2%), and developed areas (1%). This region was characterized by steep, rugged hills separated by valleys with rolling topography and streams with spring-fed tributaries. Annual rainfall averaged 115.3 cm and elevation above mean sea level ranged from 183 to 381 m. Duck and Fletcher (1945) described the native vegetation in the study area as oak (Quercus spp.)-pine (Pinus spp.) forest 1 Present address: Department of Agronomy, 373 AGH, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078. 2 Present address: RD 5, Box 76, Cameron, WV

Female Turkey Habitat Use in Mississippi River Batture

We determined habitat use by adult eastern wild turkey females (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in the Mississippi River batture before and after selective thinning of riverfront hardwoods. Thinning reduced basal area from 20.3 to 13.7 m2/ha and decreased canopy closure from 60 to 49%. Midstory density was reduced from 1,421 to 971 stems/ha. One year after treatment mean understory cover increased from 31 to 57%. No nesting occurred because the study area was flooded both springs. Female turkey habitat use changed after thinning; the thinned area received the highest frequency of increased use. An increase in understory cover and hypothesized increase in productivity, particularly of wild turkey food items, apparently were the major attractions for the thinned area. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(2):253-260 Some of the largest populations of eastern wild turkeys occurred in the bottomland hardwoods along the Mississippi River (Dickson et al. 1978). This habitat was greatly reduced by extensive conversion to cropland. By 1977, only 20% of the original forest of the lower Mississippi delta remained (U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. 1978). Currently, wild turkeys of the Mississippi delta are most abundant in the batture (Hopkins et al. 1980), the land between the river and the flood control levee. Although relatively narrow, the batture along the lower third of the Mississippi River contains approximately 630,000 ha (Lower Mississippi Reg. Comprehensive Stud. Comm. 1974), most of which has not been converted to agricultural production because of seasonal flooding (Frey and Dill 1971). Timber management practices are the primary means for manipulating turkey habitat (Smith 1981). Little information is available on the effects of various forest harvesting methods on habitat use by wild turkeys (Hurst 1981) and immediate effects of a selective thinning (Smith 1986) on wild turkeys in the batture have not been studied. We investigated habitat use by wild turkey females before and after selective thinning of hardwoods in the Mississippi River batture of northeastern Louisiana. Funding for this study was provided by the National Wild Turkey Federation and the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries through Louisiana State University. Research was conducted under the auspices of the Louisiana Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Louisiana State University, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, and Wildlife Management Institute, cooperating. Access to the study area was granted by International Paper Company and Anderson-Tully Company. This is Contribution 87-22-1310, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station.

Serological monitoring of eastern wild turkeys for antibodies to Mycoplasma spp. and avian influenza viruses.

From 1981 through 1986, plasma or serum samples were obtained from 322 wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from Georgia (n = 111), Kentucky (n = 21), Louisiana (n = 22), North Carolina (n = 118), Tennessee (n = 19), Missouri (n = 24) and Iowa (n = 7). These samples were tested for antibodies to Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and in most instances, M. synoviae (MS), M. meleagridis (MM), and avian influenza (AI) virus. All 322 turkeys were seronegative for MG by the rapid plate agglutination (RPA) test. All of a subsample (n = 147) also were negative (titer less than or equal to 1:40) for MG by the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test. Five of 253 turkeys (2%) were seropositive (+4 reaction) for MS by the RPA test; however, HI tests for MS on these five turkeys were negative as were attempts to isolate MS from trachea and homogenized lung tissue. Three of 253 turkeys (1%) were seropositive (+1 to +3 reactions) for MM by the RPA test. None of 210 turkeys had antibodies to AI by the agar gel precipitation test. These data suggest that populations of native eastern wild turkeys are not important in the epizootiology of MG, MS, MM, or AI.

Factors Affecting Productivity in a Northern Wild Turkey Population

Factors Affecting Productivity in a Northern Wild Turkey Population

EXPERIMENTAL MYCOPLASMA GALLISEPTICUM INFECTIONS IN CAPTIVE-REARED WILD TURKEYS

The effects of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infections on egg production, fertility, and hatchability were studied in captive-reared wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). Three groups of adult birds, each consisting of four hens and two toms, were exposed to MG by the respiratory route at the beginning of their breeding season. Fourteen control birds received sterile growth medium. Although no mortality of infected or control birds occurred, egg production during the first breeding season after infection was reduced. The mean number of eggs/hen/day produced by infected groups the first breeding season postexposure (PE) was significantly lower than the control value. The mean number of eggs produced daily by the same hens 1 yr later was unaffected by MG infection. The percentage of fertile eggs produced by infected groups was slightly reduced in both the first and second breeding seasons PE. Hatchability of fertile eggs from infected hens was significantly lower than eggs from control hens. Productivity may be impaired if MG infections occur in free-ranging wild turkey populations.