Wild Tea Research Articles

Seasonal variation in the nitrogen nutrition and carbon assimilation in wild and cultivated Aspalathus linearis (rooibos tea)

The Fynbos Biome of southern Africa is a Mediterranean-climate ecosystem with highly infertile soil. It is home to the endemic leguminous shrub Aspalathus linearis (rooibos tea), which is both an invaluable wild resource and commercially cultivated plant. Wild rooibos has a narrow geographic range and is confined to mountain ranges of the Cederberg Region. Under projected climate change, warmer and more arid conditions may place additional pressure on these range-restricted plants to survive in an already resource-limited environment. To understand the adaptive strategies that may allow rooibos to persist in its habitat under future climate change, the present study evaluated changes in the photosynthetic activity and nutrient cycling of wild and cultivated A. linearis, at the temperature and rainfall extremes of summer and winter. Wild and cultivated rooibos tea had different methods of adapting to nitrogen (N) nutrition and carbon (C) assimilation during wet and dry seasons. In particular, the wild plants were better able to tolerate summer drought by increased water use efficiency and maintaining higher levels of biological N2 fixation than was the cultivated tea.

Comparative Analysis of Catechin and Caffeine Content of Wild Tea Plant in Sichuan-Chongqing Region

Comparative Analysis of Catechin and Caffeine Content of Wild Tea Plant in Sichuan-Chongqing Region

Quality control method for commercially available wild Jujube leaf tea based on HPLC characteristic fingerprint analysis of flavonoid compounds

Flavonoids are the main active components of natural medicinal plants with many physiological functions. In this study, an HPLC fingerprinting method based on the distribution and relative amount of 11 bioactive flavonoids was established for the quality evaluation of commercially available wild Jujube leaf tea (JLT) from China. Separation of the crude flavonoid extract was achieved on a column filled with C18 material with a high carbon content. The flavonoids in wild JLT were identified based on UV spectroscopy and accurate mass measurements by TOF-MS. Twenty-one batches of practical samples collected from different habitats were analyzed by using the developed HPLC method to construct the HPLC characteristic fingerprint of wild JLT. Then, combined with clustering and similarity analyses, the HPLC characteristic fingerprint was used for the authentication and quality evaluation of commercial wild JLT. Results indicated that the proposed HPLC characteristic fingerprint reflected the inherent characteristics of wild JLT collected from different regions. Authenticity identification and quality control of commercially available wild Jujube tea were achieved based on the HPLC characteristic fingerprint analysis. This new approach to bioactive component profiling provided a promising reference method for the quality evaluation of commercial wild flower and plant tea.

Peak-End Rule을 적용한 관광경험의 이해 -하동야생차문화축제를 중심으로-

사람들은 흔히 마지막을 중요시 여기는 성향이 있다. 축제장에서 가장 핵심적인 초대가수나 이벤트가 프로그램 맨 마지막에 배치되는 경우 또한 이 때문이라고 할 수 있다. 심리학자 카네만은 인간은 가장 강한(Peak)경험과 가장 마지막(End)경험이 기억과 회상평가에 주요한 영향을 미친다는 것을 여러 실험을 통해 밝혔다. 본 연구에서는 이러한 법칙이 관광장면에서도 적용이 되는지 하동야생차문화축제를 방문한 외국인 단체관광객 세 그룹에 프로그램을 달리하여 체험하게 함으로써 이를 밝혀내고자 하였다. 연구결과 1, 2, 3집단의 경우 End의 경험이 축제만족에 영향을 미치는 것으로 확인되었고, Peak의 경험 또한 3집단을 제외한 1, 2집단에서 축제만족에 영향을 미치는 것으로 확인되었다. 이 중 1, 2집단은 Peak와 End가 모두 축제만족에 영향을 미치는 것으로 확인되었다. People have tendency to remember only the last good memories in result. It was similar that main singer or event has often at end of the program. Psychologist of Kahneman found that we remember about the pleasurable quality of our past experience is almost entirely determined by the strongest experience(Peak) and the last experience(End). This study examined Peak-End Rule available to the three different group of foreigner package tourists visited Ha-Dong Wild tea cultural festival. Results that all group's End experience have influence to satisfaction of festival. Also Peak experience has influenced significant to satisfaction of festival except of third group. First and Second group satisfaction were influenced both of Peak experience and End experience.

New Flavan-3-ol Dimer from Green Tea Produced from Camellia taliensis in the Ai-Lao Mountains of Southwest China

Camellia taliensis (W. W. Smith) Melchior, belonging to the genus Camellia sect. Thea (Theaceae), is an endemic species distributed from the west and southwest of Yunnan province, China, to the north of Myanmar. Known as a wild tea tree, its leaves have been used commonly for producing tea beverages by the local people of its growing area. One new flavan-3-ol dimer, talienbisflavan A (1), was isolated from green tea prepared from the leaves of C. taliensis collected from the east side of the Ai-Lao mountains, Yuanjiang county of Yunnan province, China. In addition, five hydrolyzable tannins (2-6), five flavonols and flavonol glycosides (9-13), three flavan-3-ols (14-16), nine simple phenolic compounds and glycosides (7, 8, and 17-23), and caffeine (24) were identified. Their structures were determined by detailed spectroscopic analysis. All of the isolated phenolic compounds were tested for their antioxidant activities by DPPH and ABTS(+) radical scavenging assays. The contents of its main chemical compositions were also compared with those collected from the Lincang area of Yunnan province by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis.

Safety regulations of food and water implemented in the first year following the Fukushima nuclear accident

An earthquake and tsunami of historic proportions caused massive damage across the northeastern coast of Japan on the afternoon of 11 March 2011, and the release of radionuclides from the stricken reactors of the Fukushima nuclear power plant 1 was detected early on the next morning. High levels of radioiodines and radiocesiums were detected in the topsoil and plants on 15 March 2011, so sampling of food and water for monitoring surveys began on 16 March 2011. On 17 March 2011, provisional regulation values for radioiodine, radiocesiums, uranium, plutonium and other transuranic α emitters were set to regulate the safety of radioactively contaminated food and water. On 21 March 2011, the first restrictions on distribution and consumption of contaminated items were ordered. So far, tap water, raw milk, vegetables, mushrooms, fruit, nut, seaweeds, marine invertebrates, coastal fish, freshwater fish, beef, wild animal meat, brown rice, wheat, tea leaves and other foodstuffs had been contaminated above the provisional regulation values. The provisional regulation values for radioiodine were exceeded in samples taken from 16 March 2011 to 21 May 2011, and those for radiocesiums from 18 March 2011 to date. All restrictions were imposed within 318 days after the provisional regulation values were first exceeded for each item. This paper summarizes the policy for the execution of monitoring surveys and restrictions, and the outlines of the monitoring results of 220 411 samples and the enforced restrictions predicated on the information available as of 31 March 2012.

Genetic diversity and molecular discrimination of wild tea plants from Yunnan Province based on inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers

To efficiently assess and discriminate wild tea germplasms, inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) were used to determine genetic relationships among 40 wild tea plants. A total of 275 bands were generated with 15 ISSR primers, of which 274 (99.6%) were polymorphic. The mean genetic similarity coefficient, the mean Nei’s gene diversity (h) and the mean Shannon’s information index (I) of tea cultivars were 0.4180, 0.3797 and 0.5586, respectively. This suggested that the genetic diversity of wild tea trees and the genetic base were very wide. Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) cluster analysis showed clear genetic relationships among these germplasms, and the major clusters were related to known pedigree relationships. Besides, from the bands amplified, there were three independent ways to identify the tea varieties, such as unique ISSR markers, unique band patterns and a combination of the band patterns provided by different primers. Finally, the ISSR fingerprints of 40 tea germplasms were constructed by the combination of the band patterns. This research indicated that ISSR markers were very effective in differentiating the wild tea varieties, too.

Antioxidative activities and the chemical constituents of two Chinese teas, Camellia kucha and C. ptilophylla

SummaryTwo kinds of green tea were prepared with the young shoots of Camellia kucha and C. ptilophylla, and antioxidative activities of the chemical constituents were determined. Levels of alkaloids, catechins, total polyphenols, flavonoids and amino acids were determined by high‐performance liquid chromatography and UV‐Vis spectrophotometer. Antioxidative activity was evaluated by applying 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl radical assay and ferric reducing antioxidant power assay. Our results showed that theobromine was the only alkaloid in C. ptilophylla, while there was theacrine in C. kucha, which was coexisting with the caffeine. We confirmed the high content of (−)‐gallocatechin gallate in C. ptilophylla was not the epimerisation of (−)‐epigallocatechin gallate during the heating procedure. These wild teas had higher content of tea polyphenols, water extracts, amion acids and stronger antioxidative activity compared with the longjing tea. They could be used for the development of noncaffeine beverages and new types of tea.

Effects of chemical composition of wild bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides DC.) growing at locations differing in altitude, climate and edaphic factors

This study was conducted to determine the chemical composition of wild bush tea growing at locations differing in altitude, climate and edaphic factors. Samples were collected from 8 locations selected for their abundance of wild bush tea and replicated 6 times in the laboratory using a completely randomized design (CRD). The areas where bush tea samples were collected comprised of Khalavha, Louis Trichardt, Mudzidzidzi, Muhuyu, Haenertsburg, Hazyview, Barberton and Levubu, respectively. Bush tea samples were collected from the bush, and the total polyphenol content, tannin and total antioxidant contents were determined. Polyphenol content reached a maximum of 7.7 mg/100 g in bush tea samples from Haenertsburg, whereas the lowest content of 3.6 mg/100 g was recorded in Levubu. The highest polyphenol content was reached when altitude was at 1 410 m in Haenertsburg. Tannin content was the lowest (0.05 mg/100 g) in Khalavha. The highest tannin content was observed in Levubu with a maximum of 9.8 mg/100 g. The amount of total antioxidant content remained the same in all the locations at 35 µmol/ g. A positive correlation (R2 = 0.55) was observed between total polyphenol content and altitude. However, rainfall, temperature, soil macro elements and soil pH did not have any influence on total polyphenol, total tannin and total antioxidant contents. Key words: Polyphenols, tannins, antioxidants, edaphic factors, climatic factors.

Diversity distribution and population structure of tea germplasms in China revealed by EST-SSR markers

Tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) originated from China, where distributed abundant genetic resources. It is of critical importance to well understanding of genetic diversity and population structure for effective collection, conservation, and utilization of tea germplasms. In this study, 96 new polymorphic EST-SSR markers were developed and used to analyze 450 tea accessions collected from 14 tea-producing regions across China. A total of 409 alleles were observed, and the gene diversity (H) and polymorphic information content (PIC) were estimated to be averagely 0.64 and 0.61, respectively, across all the tested samples. The higher level of genetic diversity was observed in original regions like Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou provinces. The allele number, H, and PIC showed decreasing trend when the region was more and more away from origin center of tea plant, which gave us implications on the spreading route of tea plant in China. The clustering of 450 samples both showed a clear separation according to their geographic origin based on either model simulation or genetic distance. The genetic differentiation was further analyzed among five inferred populations represented different eco-geographic regions. The lowest Fst and the closest relationship were revealed between proximal populations, which indicated that gene exchanges occurred frequently between nearby regions than distance ones. The majority of genetic variation resulted from differentiation within population (81.36%) rather than among inferred (13.6%) and regional (5.04%) populations based on analysis of molecular variance. Our study also revealed that the lower diversity and simpler population structure were found in improved cultivars than wild teas and landraces, which indicated that genetic base of developed cultivars became narrow because of long-standing domestication and artificial selection. So more attentions should be focused to conserve and utilize the beneficial genes in wild teas and landraces to broaden genetic variation of new cultivars in future breeding of the tea plant.

Antibacterial activity of extracts of twelvecommon medicinal plants from the Philippines

The antibacterial activity of the n-hexane, acetone/dichloromethane, ethanol and aqueous extracts of twelve common medicinal plants from the Philippines obtained through pounding and solvent extraction was evaluated using disc Agar diffusion. The microorganisms tested were: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Susceptibility test results showed that different extracts (1000 mcg/disc) from ten plants inhibited growth with a mean zone of inhibition range of 15 to 30 mm against S. aureus, E. coii, and P. aeruginosa. The common medicinal plants which showed highly positive activity were Psidium guajava (guava), Eucalyptus globulus, Mangifera indica(Indian mango), Nasturtium officinale (Watercress), Pterygospermum oleiferum (Moringa),Carmona retusa (Wild tea), Citrus aurantifolia (Lemon), Citrus sinensis (Orange), Allium sativum (garlic), and Allium cepa (onion). Preliminary phytochemical screening revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, glucosides, saponins and steroids/terpenes. The results suggest that the different plant extracts contain bioactive constituent(s) particularly tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids and other glycosides with very strong antibacterial activity and validates the ethno-medical use in the treatment of bacterial skin diseases and other forms of bacterial infections. However, many reputed plant antibacterials have very variable activities depending on certain conditions. Key words: Antibacterial, medicinal plants from the Philippines, n-hexane, acetone/dichloromethane, ethanol, aqueous extracts, Psidium guajava, preliminary phytochemical screening.

Comparative genomic analysis of Korean and Japanese green tea trees by using molecular markers

Although green tea is one of the most popular beverages in many countries, the evolutionary origin of Korean and Japanese green tea trees has not been extensively elucidated in a molecular level. Lineages of the five Korean green tea populations and cultivars growing in Hadong area were examined in comparison with the six Japanese and one Chinese cultivars using phylogenetic analysis and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis with cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) markers. Molecular phylogenetic analyses using the non-transcribed region (NTS) region of the 5S rRNA suggested that the Korean Hadong cultivar was a minor variant of the Korean Hadong Cheon-nyeon wild tea plant, which has grown in the Hadong area more than 800 years. RFLP analysis with CAPS markers of the genes in phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway showed that all of the Korean Hadong wild tea populations and cultivar had unique polymorphism patterns, when compared with those of the six Japanese and one Chinese cultivars. In addition, Hadong Cheon-nyeon wild tea showed unique CAPS patterns in the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) locus, indicating that the three CAPS markers in the PAL gene are sufficient to distinguish Hadong Cheon-nyeon wild tea from the others. Thus, our genetic analyses suggested that the Korean Hadong Cheon-nyeon wild tea plant might have evolved as a different lineage from the other wild green tea populations in the Hadong area or the Japanese tea cultivars. Key words: Restriction fragment length polymorphism, cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence marker, green tea, Hadong wild tea, evolutionary origin

Determination of purine alkaloids and catechins in different parts of Camellia assamica var. kucha by HPLC‐DAD/ESI‐MS/MS

AbstractBACKGROUND: Kucha (Camellia assamica var. kucha) is a novel wild tea resource grown in China and a tea plant containing a sizable amount of theacrine (1,3,7,9‐tetramethyluric acid). High‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of purine alkaloids and catechins in young leaves of Kucha has been reported previously. However, the compositions of purine alkaloids and catechins in other parts of the plant remain unknown, and more information about the chemical constituents of Kucha is also necessary for further research and development of this new tea resource.RESULTS: Using HPLC with diode array detection coupled with electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC‐DAD/ESI‐MS/MS), three purine alkaloids, seven catechins and four non‐catechin phenolic compounds were identified or tentatively identified in Kucha. Purine alkaloids and catechins in leaves at different developmental stages, flowers, stems, pericarps and seeds of the plant were also quantified for the first time by the HPLC method, which was fully validated. Recoveries of the quantified compounds ranged from 96.67 to 104.33%.CONCLUSION: The results showed that the total contents of purine alkaloids and catechins were highest in young leaves of Kucha. Theacrine was detected in all parts of the plant and found to be most abundant in pericarps. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry

Studies of cocoa tea, a wild tea tree containing theobromine

Camellia ptilophylla Chang is a wild tea tree containing theobromine and is caffeine-free. Lots of researches have been conducted for its domestication since it was discovered to contain theobromine in its shoots. First, its pharmacological and physiological effects have been studied, demonstrating that it can be used as a new resource of tea as daily and healthy beverage. Cocoa tea differs from traditional tea in that it does not excite the nervous system. Second, various ways of propagation have been investigated, and sexless cutting has been the method adopted currently. Third, through selection and breeding, plantation of cocoa tea can be set up to cultivate new varieties, and cocoa tea of different flavors such as green cocoa tea, oolong cocoa tea, and black cocoa tea can be processed. Thus, cocoa tea will become a choice in the tea market.

Isolation and characterization of 15 microsatellite markers from wild tea plant (Camellia taliensis) using FIASCO method

Camellia taliensis is one of the most important wild tea plants in China, especially in Yunnan Province. In this study, we described the development of 15 microsatellite markers from the genome of C. taliensis using the protocol of fast isolation by AFLP of sequences containing repeats (FIASCO). Polymorphism of each locus was assessed in 24 samples collected from six wild populations of C. taliensis. The average allele number of the microsatellites was four per locus, ranging from 2 to 7. The observed and expected heterozygosities varied from 0.076 to 0.5833 and from 0.1560 to 0.6917, respectively. Cross-species amplification in other three tea plants showed eleven of them holding promise for sister species. These polymorphic SSR markers would be useful tools for population genetics studies and assessing genetic variations to establish conservation strategy, molecular identification and molecular breeding on this tea plant and its allied species and varieties in section Thea genus Camellia.

Bioactivities of essential oil and extract of Thymus argaeus, Turkish endemic wild thyme

AbstractBACKGROUND: Thymus argaeus Boiss. & Bal. (Lamiaceae), an endemic plant species of Turkey known as wild thyme, is traditionally used as a spice and a wild tea in the Inner Anatolia region of Turkey. In this study the composition of the essential oil and the antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of the methanolic extract and essential oil of T. argaeus were determined.RESULTS: The main components of the essential oil were linalool (499 g kg−1), α‐terpineol (150 g kg−1), linalyl acetate (97 g kg−1) and thymol (94 g kg−1). The total phenolic, flavanol and flavonol contents of the extract were 83.31 ± 0.59 mg gallic acid equivalent g−1, 6.26 ± 0.00 mg catechin equivalent g−1 and 28.81 ± 0.21 mg rutin equivalent g−1 respectively. The antioxidant activities of the extract and essential oil determined by the 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl radical‐scavenging method were 830.18 ± 0.42 and 20.47 ± 2.3 mg g−1 respectively. The antimicrobial activities of the extract and essential oil against 13 bacteria and two yeasts were studied by the agar diffusion method. The micro‐organisms most sensitive to the essential oil were Aeromonas hydrophila and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while the micro‐organism most sensitive to the extract was P. aeruginosa.CONCLUSION: Only the extract of T. argaeus could be used as a natural antioxidant, while both the extract and the essential oil could be useful as natural antimicrobial agents in food preservation. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry

The Manufacturing Tradition of the Wild Hand-made Tea of Hwa-gae and Reasons Why this Tea Continues to Exist Today

The Manufacturing Tradition of the Wild Hand-made Tea of Hwa-gae and Reasons Why this Tea Continues to Exist Today

Indian Tea Industry Since the 1990's

Tea is made from the young leaves and leaf buds of the tea bush Camellia sinensis. Ancient Chinese and Japanese legends refer to a beverage made from an infusion of dried tea leaves. In 1833, the East India Company, after losing its legal monopoly of the tea trade between China and Britain, began to look for other sources of supply. As a result, the cultivation of tea in India began in 1834, with the planting of wild tea found growing in Assam in 1823. The tea industry has an important and special place in the Indian economy. Tea is the country's primary beverage, with almost 85% of total households in the country consuming tea. India is the world's largest producer and consumer of tea, with India accounting for 27% of the world tea production. India's expenditure on beverages and processed foods accounts for 8% of food expenditure in rural areas, and 15% in urban areas. India is also an important tea exporter, accounting for around 12-13% of world tea exports. Further, certain varieties of tea (for example Darjeeling) are grown only in India and are in great demand across the world. All Darjeeling teas possess the lightness of flavour and fine colouring that set them apart from all other teas. India's tea industry exports were estimated at Rs. 17.31 billion during FY2006, accounting for 0.4% of India's exports. In value terms, tea ranks as the fourth-largest agricultural product export item from India, with exports of around US$410 million in 2004. In terms of employment, the tea industry employs around 1.27 million people at tea plantations, and 2 million people indirectly, of which 50% are women. The last fact is particularly important when we consider that tea industry, to a large extent, drives the economies of the regions where the tea gardens are concentrated, for example Assam. Tea is the prime beverage consumed in India, and private final consumption expenditure (PFCE) on tea, coffee and cocoa aggregated Rs. 134.96 billion in FY2005, accounting for around 2% of India's PFCE on food, and 0.7% of India's PFCE. The latest available data indicates that tea accounts for 90.6% for India's consumption of stimulants (tea, coffee, and cocoa beans), followed by coffee (7.7%), and cocoa beans (1.7%). Tea plantations in India are mainly located in rural hills and backward areas of North-eastern and Southern States. Major tea growing areas of the country are concentrated in Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The other areas where tea is grown to a small extent are Karnataka, Tripura Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Sikkim, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Bihar and Orissa. Now if we boil down to the manufacturing counterpart of Indian tea industry then we will see that the sector is comparatively small. In fact, the tea as an agricultural output earns more money fot the country than as a manufactured product. But this by no means indicate that tea manufacturing is a nascent concept in India. As we will see that the only player that has crossed the seven seas to promote branded tea in form of Polypacks etc. is Tata Tea. But the fact that there are no other major house which has promoted itself as a tea manufacturing house provides enough scope to the houses themselves to improve their status. But there are some intrinsic problem which we will discuss about in the report.

Isolation and characterization of 11 microsatellite loci from Camellia sinensis in Taiwan using PCR-based isolation of microsatellite arrays (PIMA)

We report 11 novel microsatellite primer pairs for the wild tea, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze forma formosensis Kitamura. These simple sequence repeat markers were tested in 24 samples collected from wild tea populations, and in cultivars and C. japonica. The number of alleles ranged from 4 to18. The expected (H(E)) and observed (H(O)) heterozygosity were 0.687-0.946 and 0.042-0.792, respectively. All loci were significantly deviated from Hardy-Weinberg expectations due to the heterozygote deficiency, indicating a dramatic loss of genetic polymorphisms in the rare species. Significant LD was discovered in most loci. These primers may provide a tool for understanding demography and population structure in wild tea.

발효정도에 따른 국내산 야생차의 기호적 특성

발효정도에 따른 국내산 야생차의 기호적 특성