Wild Olive Trees Research Articles

Allozyme variation of oleaster populations (wild olive tree) (Olea europaea L.) in the Mediterranean Basin.

As a result of the early domestication and extensive cultivation of the olive tree throughout the Mediterranean Basin, the wild-looking forms of olive (oleasters) presently observed constitute a complex, potentially ranging from wild to feral forms. Allozyme variation was analysed at 10 loci in 31 large and 44 small oleaster populations distributed in various habitats of the Mediterranean Basin and in two populations of the wild subspecies Olea europaea subsp (ssp) guanchica, endemic to the Canary islands and closely related to oleasters. At eight polymorphic loci, 25 alleles were identified. Genetic evidence that nondomesticated oleasters still survive locally was provided by the occurrence of four and one alleles shared exclusively by the eight western and two eastern oleaster populations, respectively, which were collected in forests potentially containing genuinely wild forms according to environmental, historical and demographic criteria. As reported previously from cytoplasmic and RAPDs analysis, substantial genetic differentiation was observed between the eastern oleaster populations genetically close to most olive clones cultivated in the Mediterranean Basin, and the western populations that are related to the wild Canarian populations. In addition, the occurrence of significantly lower heterozygosity in cultivated olive than in oleasters, whatever their origin, suggests that intensive selection involving inbreeding has taken place under cultivation to obtain particular characteristics in the olive cultivars.

Ancient Oleiculture and Ethnic Differentiation: The Meaning of the Olive-Tree Image in Romans 11

The image of the olive tree in Rom. 11.16b-24, like other such images in Paul’s correspondence, deserves to be taken seriously as contributing to the message he is communicating. This necessitates considering it in the light of its ancient context, here meaning Graeco-Roman oleiculture. The best solution is not, however, that Paul was referring to a technique mentioned by Columella of stimulating fruitfulness in a cultivated olive tree by grafting in a twig of wild olive. Rather, he is alluding to the standard practice in the eastern Mediterranean, described by Theophrastus and employed even in our times, of grafting a stock of cultivated olive onto a wild olive tree. But Paul deliberately depicts the inversion of this process, as a way of undermining the pretensions of Greek Christ-followers in Rome. The result is an image of the Christ movement, clearly differentiated in its parts, in which the Judaean members are superior to the others.

The distribution of olive fruit fly captures with McPhail traps within an olive orchard

The spatial distribution of olive fruit flyBactrocera (Dacus) oleae (Gmelin) (Diptera: Tephritidae) field captures with McPhail traps within an experimental orchard was evaluated. Contour maps were constructed to examine the patterns in the 3-year trapping data. Captures varied widely inside the olive orchard, with traps suspended on wild olive trees exhibiting the poorest performance. Favorable microclimate, created by a standing water pool, appeared to be responsible for increased trap captures during the hot summer months. The positive role of the olive tree fruit load is also discussed.

From True Dorobo to Mukogodo Maasai: Contested Ethnicity in Kenya

Between 1925 and 1936, the Mukogodo of Kenya changed from Cushitic-speaking foragers to Maa-speaking pastoralists. This rapid transition took place in the midst of competing views of Mukogodo ethnic identity. To Maa-speakers, Mukogodo were low-status il-torrobo. To British colonialists, Mukogodo were true Dorobo, victims of more powerful agricultural and pastoralist groups. Although British administrators fashioned a set of policies designed to protect Mukogodo from such groups, other British policies inadvertently contributed to the Mukogodo acquisition of Maasai subsistence patterns, language, and culture. Mukogodo themselves strategically used a Dorobo identity to manipulate the British while striving to lose the stigma of the il-torrobo label and achieve acceptance among Maa-speakers as true Maasai. (Mukogodo, Dorobo, Torrobo, Maasai, Samburu, ethnicity, Kenya) ********** Between the mid-1920s and mid-1930s, Mukogodo of Kenya underwent a rapid transition from being Cushitic-speaking hunters, gatherers, and beekeepers to being Maa-speaking pastoralists. (2) This transition is problematic in a number of ways. First, thanks to data on time allocation collected since the 1960s, it can no longer be assumed that a change from foraging to food production will improve a group's standard of living or reduce the workloads of its members (see Hames 1992 for a review). In the Mukogodo case specifically, there is no convincing evidence of an increase in standard of living since their acquisition of livestock (Cronk 1989b). Second, other hunter-gatherers in East Africa in superficially similar situations have remained hunter-gatherers despite contact with pastoralists (e.g., Hadza; see Kaare and Woodburn 1999), and Mukogodo themselves had had contact with pastoralists for centuries before the transition without themselves becoming pastoralists. Third, it cannot be taken for granted that even if a group does change its subsistence strategy it will also necessarily undergo the sort of wholesale cultural shift experienced by Mukogodo. Other groups in East Africa have made similar changes in subsistence while still keeping their own languages and other aspects of their own cultures (e.g., Okiek; Huntingford 1928, 1929, 1931, 1942, 1951, 1954, 1955; Blackburn 1976, 1982; Kratz 1981, 1994, 1999). Elsewhere (Cronk 1989a, 1989b) I have analyzed the Mukogodo transition in behavioral ecological terms, suggesting that for individual Mukogodo men the adoption of pastoralism represented a response to a rapidly changing social environment in which they either obtained livestock or failed to marry. I have also examined some of the consequences of the Mukogodo transition to pastoralism, including their low position in a regional hierarchy of wealth and ethnic status (Cronk 1989c, 1990, 1991c). This article explores the change from a different but complementary angle, focusing more on the external factors that changed their social environment. An examination of the broader historical and political context reveals that the Mukogodo transition occurred as Mukogodo attempted to manipulate the attitudes and behaviors of both British colonialists and Maasai pastoralists, two groups with competing and strikingly different views of Mukogodo ethnicity. THE EMERGENCE OF A MUKOGODO ETHNICITY Mukogodo live on the northeastern edge of the Laikipia Plateau in and around the Mukogodo Hills, which are covered with a dry forest dominated by cedar and wild olive trees (Mukogodo Division, Laikipia District, Rift Valley Province, Kenya). The origins of the Mukogodo people are obscure, but linguistic evidence suggests that they may have roots among the original Khoisan-speaking hunters and gatherers of East Africa (Ehret 1974:88). Until recent decades, however, they spoke not a Khoisan language, but rather an Eastern Cushitic one called Yaaku (Heine 1974-75; see also Brenzinger 1992 and Brenzinger, Heine, and Heine 1994). …

Plant genetics. Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests.

Early domestication and extensive cultivation have meant that staple Mediterranean fruit crops such as olives, grapes and dates exist in wild-looking forms that are secondary derivatives produced by sexual reproduction among cultivated plants (cultivars), which were initially propagated vegetatively. By using genetic markers associated with characters that render plants unsuitable for domestication, we show here that genuinely wild olive trees, which cannot be distinguished morphologically from feral forms, still survive in a few Mediterranean forests. These wild stocks are genetically distinct and more variable than either the crop strains or their derived feral forms, a finding that has important implications for the conservation of these ancient lineages.

FACTORS SHAPING THE SEEDFALL PATTERNOF A BIRD-DISPERSED PLANT

The spatial distribution of seeds can influence several parameters of the natural regeneration of plant populations. Factors shaping seedfall patterns have been typically explored from the tree perspective (seed shadow) or from the population perspective (seed rain). However, the seed rain is actually composed of multiple seed shadows. In this paper, we use this framework to explore the variables shaping the seedfall pattern of the wild olive tree (Olea europaea var. sylvestris), a fleshy-fruited tree of the Mediterranean scrublands. We monitored the movement patterns of avian seed dispersers and the seedfall around each fruit-bearing O. europaea tree in two contrasting sites, differing in the degree of human management and abundance of scrub cover. None of the seed dispersers moved between microhabitats (different shrub species and open interspaces) as a function of microhabitat relative abundance. All dispersers foraged preferentially at O. europaea; only the smaller species visited open interspaces, and these only sporadically. Avoidance of open sites by frugivores, especially larger species, and their attraction to source trees were the major determinants of the seedfall pattern. Regarding seed size distribution among microhabitats, we found that only small seeds were significantly overrepresented in open interspaces. From the seed shadow perspective, seed density under trees was similar in the two study sites, but it decreased with distance at a higher rate in the disturbed scrubland. From the seed rain perspective, seed density was significantly different among microhabitats, with open interspaces collecting few, if any, seeds, and places under source trees receiving the highest densities. Results from seed shadow and seed rain analyses were integrated to construct a path model to explore the relative contribution of spatial, microhabitat, and individual tree features to the seedfall pattern. Factors related to microhabitat were identified as having a major role in shaping seedfall pattern. Open interspaces collected few seeds, points under shrub species with sparse foliage collected moderate seed densities, and points under shrubs with dense foliage collected the highest seed densities. The comparison between sites suggests that habitat alteration (a reduction of the scrub layer) can lead to contrasting seedfall patterns. The occurrence of an abundant scrub layer in the well-preserved scrubland allowed a complex pattern of seed rain. In contrast, the sparse scrub cover in the disturbed scrubland yielded a seedfall pattern composed of multiple seed shadows constrained to the vicinity of tree crowns. Thus, our sampling design and analytical approach have proved useful in describing the relative importance of the set of variables that shapes the complex seedfall pattern of a bird-dispersed plant. This seedfall pattern, in turn, is central to the understanding of the spatial patterns of plant recruitment and the efficiency of the dispersal mutualism.

Factors Shaping the Seedfall Pattern of a Bird-Dispersed Plant

The spatial distribution of seeds can influence several parameters of the natural regeneration of plant populations. Factors shaping seedfall patterns have been typically explored from the tree perspective (seed shadow) or from the population perspective (seed rain). However, the seed rain is actually composed of multiple seed shadows. In this paper, we use this framework to explore the variables shaping the seedfall pattern of the wild olive tree (Olea europaea var. sylvestris), a fleshy-fruited tree of the Mediterranean scrublands. We monitored the movement patterns of avian seed dispersers and the seedfall around each fruit-bearing O. europaea tree in two contrasting sites, differing in the degree of human management and abundance of scrub cover. None of the seed dispersers moved between microhabitats (different shrub species and open interspaces) as a function of microhabitat relative abundance. All dispersers foraged preferentially at O. europaea; only the smaller species visited open interspaces, and these only sporadically. Avoidance of open sites by frugivores, especially larger species, and their attraction to source trees were the major determinants of the seedfall pattern. Regarding seed size distribution among microhabitats, we found that only small seeds were significantly overrepresented in open interspaces. From the seed shadow perspective, seed density under trees was similar in the two study sites, but it decreased with distance at a higher rate in the disturbed scrubland. From the seed rain perspective, seed density was significantly different among microhabitats, with open interspaces collecting few, if any, seeds, and places under source trees receiving the highest densities. Results from seed shadow and seed rain analyses were integrated to construct a path model to explore the relative contribution of spatial, microhabitat, and individual tree features to the seedfall pattern. Factors related to microhabitat were identified as having a major role in shaping seedfall pattern. Open interspaces collected few seeds, points under shrub species with sparse foliage collected moderate seed densities, and points under shrubs with dense foliage collected the highest seed densities. The comparison between sites suggests that habitat alteration (a reduction of the scrub layer) can lead to contrasting seedfall patterns. The occurrence of an abundant scrub layer in the well-preserved scrubland allowed a complex pattern of seed rain. In contrast, the sparse scrub cover in the disturbed scrubland yielded a seedfall pattern composed of multiple seed shadows constrained to the vicinity of tree crowns. Thus, our sampling design and analytical approach have proved useful in describing the relative importance of the set of variables that shapes the complex seedfall pattern of a bird-dispersed plant. This seedfall pattern, in turn, is central to the understanding of the spatial patterns of plant recruitment and the efficiency of the dispersal mutualism.

Early effects of rodent post‐dispersal seed predation on the outcome of the plant–seed disperser interaction

We analysed two potential effects of post‐dispersal seed predation on recruitment of the wild olive tree (Olea europaea var. sylvestris), a Mediterranean bird‐dispersed tree: (a) the limitation of abundance and distribution of seedlings after dispersal, and (b) the selection of certain seed characteristics of the recruited plants. An observational approach was used to compare seed rain among microhabitats, and how it was affected by seed predation. The relation of microhabitat, scrub density, and seed size with predation risk was explored by a field experiment. Seed density ranged from 0 seeds/m2 in open places to 93.2 seeds/m2 under O. europaea. The overall predation rate was low, as shown in the observational approach (35%). The mean percentage of predation in the experimental approach was 51%, ranging across microhabitats between 28% and 88%. It was higher in dense scrub patches (67%) than in sparse ones (33%), and lower for large seeds (42%) than for medium and small ones (57% and 55%, respectively). Finally, seed density near seed depots did not increase their probability of being detected by rodents or the predation rate. Although predation rates were low, wild olive seeds could be frequently found by rodents due to their spatial ubiquity and local abundance. Together with the efficient foraging strategy of predators (92% of experimental seed depots were found), this allowed a widespread post‐dispersal predation, but it did not modify the relative distribution of seeds among microhabitats. Thus, in our study, the seed dispersal pattern of the wild olive tree was not reshaped by post‐dispersal predation, because (1) rodents did not alter significantly its initial spatial distribution and (2) mice did not seem to limit the number of recruits. Finally, our results indicate that, as a consequence of seed size preferences of rodents, large seeds have a higher probability to survive post‐dispersal predation. Thus, seed size may be a key trait to determine the identity of the future recruits in the wild olive tree, at least affecting the characteristics of the seeds that reach the soil seed bank.

Assessment of browsing biomass, nutritive value and carrying capacity of shrublands for red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) management in Monfragüe Natural Park (SW Spain)

Relationships between shrub browsing biomass (BB) and the morphological variables maximum height (H), relative height (RH), maximum diameter (D1) and minimum diameter (D2) were determined using stepwise multiple logarithmic regressions in shrublands composed of three dominant species, black heather (Erica australis L.), wild olive tree (Olea sylvestris Miller) and phillyrea (Phillyrea angustifolia L.), from the Monfragüe Natural Park in south-western Spain. Significant statistical analyses indicate that these models can be used for the determination of BB for the three dominant species. Analysis of the leaves of the three species were undertaken to determine the following nutritional parameters: minerals, ashes, neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre, crude protein, crude fat and metabolizable energy. Results of BB together with the nutritional analysis, the acceptability of each species and the demand of metabolizable energy of deer were used in the determination of carrying capacity for three periods: maintenance (1·28 deer ha−1), lactation (0·78 deer ha−1) and gestation (0·99 deer ha−1). These results are only applicable to 22% of the Monfragüe Natural Park (south-western Spain) where these shrublands occur.

Diet plasticity in blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla): The ability to overcome nutritional constraints imposed by agricultural intensification

We studied the consequences of agricultural intensification on the diet, nutritive balance, and body condition of an avian frugivore (blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla) that overwinters in southern Spain, and analysed dietary plasticity as an ability to overcome the effects of agricultural intensification. We considered two habitats with very different levels of land-use: Mediterranean shrublands dominated by wild olive trees, and highly managed olive orchards. We partitioned the diet into four basic components: olive fruits, non-olive fruits, arthropods, and non-fruit plant matter. Availability of these resources, which influenced diet composition and body mass, differed among habitats and reflected the degree of human land-use. Hedges in olive orchards increased the local fruit diversity, making the diet and body mass in olive orchards more similar to that of less altered habitats. Based on diet composition analysis in relation to energy, protein, and mineral intake, we suggest that blackcaps wintering in olive orchards select non-fruit plant matter (a rare item in other habitats) so as to balance their energy, protein, and mineral intakes. This is necessary because of the scarcity of resources other than olives in orchards. Moreover, such deficiency probably results in higher exploitation costs, which in turn may affect the birds’ physical condition. Remarkably, blackcap shows a high dietary plasticity among habitats during the autumn-winter period in southern Spain, which seems to help this species reside for part of the year in a large man-made region.

Habitat Alteration and Plant Intra-Specific Competition for Seed Dispersers. An Example with Olea europaea var. sylvestris

This paper examines the hypothesis that intra-specific competition for avian dispersers among wild olive trees (Olea europaea var. sylvestris, Oleaceae) might limit successful dispersal in disturbed habitats. To this aim, we studied the avian fruit removal of wild olive in a disturbed scrubland plot for two consecutive seasons. We found very low overall fruit removal, low abundance of avian seed dispersers, and low levels of fruit damage by biotic or abiotic agents. There was also a high interindividual variation in fruit removal success as well as a high interindividual heterogeneity in plant traits (fruit width, pulp/seed ratio, crop size and ripening phenology) in both seasons. Thus, we conclude that the low abundance of frugivorous birds severely limits the total amount of seeds dispersed from each tree of the population. We analysed the relationship between fruit removal and both plant traits and habitat characteristics. Three different estimates of fruit removal were calculated: number of seeds dispersed, dispersal efficiency (percentage of the crop consumed by avian dispersers) and dispersal success (relative contribution of each individual tree to the amount of seeds dispersed in the population). The number of seeds dispersed was positively affected mainly by crop size, but also by fruit-design traits (fruit width), and negatively by the ripening phenology. Fruit removal efficiency was positively related to fruit-design traits (fruit width and pulp/seed ratio) and ripening phenology (early ripening trees being favoured). Finally, fruit removal success was only related to fecundity (crop size and plant size). The low mean fruit removal levels and the strong interindividual variability in fruit traits produced very asymmetric results (thus enabling some individuals to have many of their seeds dispersed) and, consequently, led to an unbalanced individual contribution to the pool of seeds dispersed by the population. These results support the hypothesis that there is a high interindividual competition among plants for avian dispersers in disturbed habitats. Our results also suggest that a few individuals could probably inundate such habitats with their descendants, thus exerting a long-term influence on the subsequent genetic structure of the population.

Inference and Relevance in Paul's Allegory of the Wild Olive Tree

Relevance theory accounts for Paul's preference for 'the wild olive' tree in using horticultural practices of grafting to symbolise his mission to the Gentiles. The olive tree facilitates inclusive imagery. The principle of ostensive inferential communication also accounts for the violation of horticultural conventions. Relevance juxtaposes God who calls and Israel that fails. The remnant as cultivated olive is the balance of this process. Relevance 'roots' the symbolism in election and the covenant as origins of Israel. Israel obtains eschatological relevance and significance. Gentile Christians are drawn into eschatological Israel. The church is rooted in continuity with the historical Israel. The juxtaposition of different readings renders all interpretation relative. Yet, changing the cognitive environment of its readers guarantees the relevance of exegetical discourse.

Control of Karoo paralysis ticks through vegetation management.

Karoo paralysis, caused by feeding Ixodes rubicundus females, is a major disease of small stock in South Africa. Control methods currently practised are almost exclusively chemical based. To limit overdependance on chemicals, vegetation management was investigated as a possible method for control, to be incorporated in an integrated tick management system. Laboratory and field experiments were conducted to determine, firstly, the extent of vertical migration and survival of ticks on long and short copper rods which simulated grasses as questing substrates; secondly, the infestation burdens of sheep exposed to similar tick challenges in pens with long and short grass; and thirdly, the effect of trimming the lower crown line of wild olive trees, simulating the browsing effect of goats, on tick density in the immediate environment of the trees. When ticks were exposed to optimal ( > 45 cm) and sub-optimal ( < 10 cm) length rods on which to quest, the extent of vertical migration over extended periods of time (up to 87 days) was significantly higher (P < 0.001) for the ticks exposed to long rods. Also, almost 3 times as many ticks exposed to long rods survived compared to those exposed to short rods. Sheep exposed to long grass were infested by twice as many ticks compared to those exposed to short grass. Tick density at modified wild olive trees (Olea europaea africana) (0.027 ticks/m2) differed significantly (P < 0.05) from that at control trees (0.088 ticks/m2). It is recommended that coarse grazers such as cattle and horses should be used to graze down long grasses before sheep are introduced into camps known to be infested with I. rubicundus. Similarly, domestic goats can, through their browsing effect on shrubs and trees, modify the vegetation and as such play an important role in an integrated tick management system.

Genetic variation in the olive tree (Olea europaea L.) cultivated in Morocco

Genetic variation was studied using enzyme polymorphism at 8 loci in ancient olive trees. These were being cultivated in 10 sites along a transect from North (Pre-Rif) to South (Anti-Atlas), involving the main ecological areas where the species is cultivated in Morocco. For the 328 trees studied, 16 alleles and 68 multilocus genotypes, of which one was present in more than half the individuals analysed, were detected. Eighty seven per cent of the total genetic diversity was attributable to within site variation and showed a high proportion of local genotypes. The highest values for both genotype number and heterozygosity were observed in the South of Morocco. Such high variation may be due to the partial domestication of olive material which may be derived from crosses between cultivars or between cultivars and ‘feral’ or wild olive (oleaster) trees growing frequently in the Southern region. Genetic diversity in Moroccan olive, constitutes an important genetic resource which must be conserved for further breeding.

Types Of Literature in the Book of Mormon: Allegories, Prayers, Songs, Genealogies

Abstract The most significant allegory in the Book of Mormon is "The Allegory of the Tame and Wild Olive Tree," which appears in Jacob 5. Six different types of prayers are found in the Book of Mormon. Perhaps the best example of a true song is ’The Song of the Vineyard," actually a quotation from Isaiah. There is only one example of an extended genealogy, that of Ether, the last Jaredite prophet.

Leaf Allozyme Variation in Cultivated and Wild Olive Trees (Olea europaea L.)

Olea europaea L. is a particularly long-lived tree species characteristic of the Mediterranean region. In this study 44 standard cultivars and 89 wild trees derived from sexual reproduction in different geographic origins were scored for seven leaf enzyme systems. Genetic analyses showed that nine of 11 studied loci were polymorphic, with an average 2.7 alleles per locus in all trees analyzed. Wild trees had, on average, 66% heterozygous loci, and cultivated trees had only 19% heterozygous loci. Moreover, when they grew together, the wild trees, which are probably the result of interpollination between extant and/or ancient cultivars, possessed higher allele diversity than their sympatric cultivars. Thirty-six distinct multilocus genotypes allowed the identification of 75% of the standard cultivars. A significant positive association was found between vigor and heterozygosity at the EST1 locus in cross progeny, and at the EST1 and LAP1 loci for trees from natural populations. Despite its early and intensive domestication, the O. europaea L. thus shows a high level of enzyme polymorphism with the occurrence of novel genotype combinations in wild material.

Biogeografía y series de vegetación de la provincia de Málaga (España)

Se ha realizado una sectorización biogeográfica de la provincia de Málaga, reconociéndose 7 sectores y 12 subsectores. Se han identificado 18 series de vegetación; 11 de carácter climatófilo (encinares, alcornocales, quejigares, pinsapares, melojares y sabinares) y 7 de carácter edafófilo (sabinares, pinares, pinsapares y acebuchales). Se describen dos subasociaciones nuevas: Chamaeropo humilis-Juniperetum phoeniceae genistetosum haenselerii y Daphno latifoliae-Aceretum granatensis quercetosum alpestris.

Spatial distribution of the Karoo paralysis tickIxodes rubicundus (Acari: Ixodidae) within a false upper Karoo veld type

Spatial distribution of the Karoo paralysis tick (Ixodes rubicundus) has been studied in a paralysis enzootic area of the southwestern Orange Free State. Significantly more females than males were collected from the vegetation. Most ticks (99%) used grass as questing sites at a height of approximately 45 cm (range 10-97 cm), which correlates with the size of host animals. No significant differences between the questing height of male and female ticks were evident. The ticks were found on most of the grass species present and, except for the genus Eragrostis, no specific preference was evident. When questing, the capitulum of I. rubicundus is usually (90%) directed towards the ground. Seventy-eight percent of the ticks occurred singly on a specific grassblade or flowerhead. In those cases where two ticks occurred together, no sexual aggregation was evident. Most ticks occurred under or close (mean = 62 cm) to the crown cover of specific shrub or tree species. These plant species were characterized by a dense crown cover with a mat of decaying leaf litter underneath. The preference of the tick for wild olive trees (Olea europaea africana) suggests that, except for the physical characteristics of this tree species, host factors may also be important. Significantly more ticks were distributed on the cooler, more protected southern sides of vegetation in comparison to the northern sides.

Avian Fruit Removal: Effects of Fruit Variation, Crop Size, and Insect Damage.

Avian dispersal of seeds of the wild olive tree (Olea europaea var. sylvestris) was studied in Mediterranean shrubland, southern Spain. Fourteen species of small frugivorous birds in the genera Sylvia, Turdus, Sturnus, and Erithacus accounted for 97.4% of the fruits consumed by birds. The significance of each bird species as an Olea fruit consumer was closely related to its abundance in the area and was not associated with its dependence on the fruit for food; this resulted in a highly asymmetric interaction between the plant and its dispersers. Fruit production differed greatly between two consecutive seasons. During an extremely dry year most trees aborted their entire fruit crop just after flowering. During the 2nd yr, both flower production and fruit set increased, and this resulted in larger crops of ripe fruit. Most fruits that ripened (96.2% of the final-sized fruits) during the year of low fruit production were consumed by dispersers (X = 93.9%), and incidence of fruit-damaging agents was low (6.0%). During the 2nd yr, fruit loss to the two main fruit predators, Dacus oleae (Tephritidae) and Prays oleae (Yponomeutidae), increased (X = 27.1%, range 1.1-52.3%). A satiation process took place during this year since fruit production exceeded the energy demand of the disperser assemblage, and this increased the potential for fruit loss to insect frugivores. Fruit removal by dispersers decreased (X = 52.4%), but the increase in fecundity during the 2nd yr for most of the trees compensated for this difference and resulted in a greater absolute number of seeds removed. Most variation in ripe fruit removal by birds was attributed to the interaction of dispersal-related plant traits with insect frugivores that determine post-ripening fruit losses. The types of higher order interactions that result from the action of birds, the pulp-damaging fly, and the seed-eating moth larva may damp, or reverse, any selective effect of a single system component on plant traits related to seed dispersal.

Matronianus,Comes Isauriae: an Inscription from an Early Byzantine Basilica at Yanıkhan, Rough Cilicia

The ruins at Yanıkhan form the remains of a Late Roman village in the interior of Rough Cilicia some 8 kilometres inland from the village of Limonlu on the road to Canbazlı (see Fig. 1). The site has not been frequently visited by scholars, and the first certain reference to its existence was made by the late Professor Michael Gough after his visit on 2 September 1959. Yanıkhan is now occupied only by the Yürüks who for years have wintered on the southern slopes of Sandal Dağ. The ancient settlement at Yanıkhan consisted of a village covering several acres. The remains are still extensive, and some, especially the North Basilica, are very well preserved, but there has been considerable disturbance in recent years as stone and rubble have been removed in order to create small arable clearings. The visible remains include many domestic buildings constructed both from polygonal masonry without mortar and from mortar and rubble with coursed smallstone facing. There are several underground cisterns and a range of olive presses. The countryside around the settlement has been terraced for agricultural purposes in antiquity, and is, like the settlement itself, densely covered with scrub oak and wild olive trees. The most impressive remains are those of the two basilical churches which are of little artistic pretension, but considerable architectural interest. The inscription which forms the substance of this article was found on the lintel block of the main west entrance of the South Basilica.