Wild Elephants Research Articles

Testing the Effectiveness of the "Smelly" Elephant Repellent in Controlled Experiments in Semi-Captive Asian and African Savanna Elephants.

Crop-raiding by elephants is one of the most prevalent forms of human-elephant conflict and is increasing with the spread of agriculture into wildlife range areas. As the magnitude of conflicts between people and elephants increases across Africa and Asia, mitigating and reducing the impacts of elephant crop-raiding has become a major focus of conservation intervention. In this study, we tested the responses of semi-captive elephants to the "smelly" elephant repellent, a novel olfactory crop-raiding mitigation method. At two trial sites, in Zambia and Thailand, African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were exposed to the repellent, in order to test whether or not they entered an area protected by the repellent and whether they ate the food provided. The repellent elicited clear reactions from both study groups of elephants compared to control conditions. Generalised linear models revealed that the elephants were more alert, sniffed more, and vocalised more when they encountered the repellent. Although the repellent triggered a response, it did not prevent elephants from entering plots protected by the repellent or from eating crops, unlike in trials conducted with wild elephants. Personality played a role in responses towards the repellent, as the elephants that entered the experimental plots were bolder and more curious individuals. We conclude that, although captive environments provide controlled settings for experimental testing, the ecological validity of testing human-elephant conflict mitigation methods with captive wildlife should be strongly considered. This study also shows that understanding animal behaviour is essential for improving human-elephant coexistence and for designing deterrence mechanisms. Appreciating personality traits in elephants, especially amongst "problem" elephants who have a greater propensity to crop raid, could lead to the design of new mitigation methods designed to target these individuals.

Madras Kraals, animal labour and Veterinary Corps: colonising wild elephants in British South India

ABSTRACT Animals, animal labour and animal capital, were vital in developing colonial capitalism. For labour theories, working animals constituted only as tools or resources and affirmed the property rights of humans over animals by capturing, confining, breeding and training. The capitalist interactions with animals developed from the early warfare and hunting practices to the later discourses of conservation, juridical control and the commoditization of animals in the capital-intensive colonial industries. This article examines the entangled histories of wild elephants in colonial settings who were captured, tamed, and trained as working animals and sold as commodities to the capitalist timber industries. By using Jonathan Saha's conceptualization of 'undead capital', this article addresses how the wild elephants were transformed from being hunted to being protected, fed, provided for and kept healthy by veterinarians through the Kraal system only to be commoditized as working animals. However, such commoditization resulted in the subjugation of animals, the transformation of ecologies, and the fostering of new interspecies relationships between the elephants and their caretakers. The knowledge and experience of caretakers of elephants became central in colonial animal management and was perceived as a route through which colonialism created new knowledge about wild animals and the forests.

Fecal Metagenomics Study Reveals That a Low-Fiber Diet Drives the Migration of Wild Asian Elephants in Xishuangbanna, China.

The rare northward migration of wild Asian elephants in Xishuangbanna, China, has attracted global attention. Elephant migration is a complex ecological process, and the factors driving this long-distance migration remain elusive. In this study, fresh fecal samples were collected from both captive and wild Asian elephants, along with breastfed calves residing within the Wild Elephant Valley of Xishuangbanna. Our aim was to investigate the relationship between diet, gut microbiota, and migration patterns in Asian elephants through comprehensive metagenomic sequencing analyses. Among the breastfed Asian elephant group, Bacteroidales and Escherichia emerged as the dominant bacterial taxa, while the primary carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) enriched in this group were GH2, GH20, GH92, GH97, GH38, GH23, and GH43, aligning with their dietary source, namely breast milk. The bacterial taxa enriched in captive Asian elephants (CAEs) were mainly Butyrivibrio, Treponema, and Fibrobacter, and the enriched lignocellulose-degrading enzymes mainly included GH25, GH10, GH9, and cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4). These findings are consistent with the high-fiber diet of captive elephants. In contrast, the main bacterial taxa enriched in wild Asian elephants (WAEs) were Ruminococcus and Eubacterium, and the enriched CAZymes included GH109, GH20, GH33, GH28, GH106, and GH39. The abundance of lignocellulose-degrading bacteria and CAZyme content was low in WAEs, indicating challenges in processing high-fiber foods and explaining the low-fiber diet in this group. These findings suggest that wild elephant herds migrate in search of nutritionally suitable, low-fiber food sources.

Is there scope for growth? Mapping habitat suitability for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) across its range in China

Maintenance of sufficient habitat for large terrestrial mammals in increasingly human-dominated landscapes is challenging. Wild Asian elephants in China were historically widespread, but now comprise 293 individuals confined to three prefectures in southwestern Yunnan Province. Effective legal protection has permitted population growth of Chinese elephants, but it is not known why elephants are confined to the southwestern portion of Yunnan, nor has there been a comprehensive assessment of the extent, quality and carrying capacity of habitat within their potential range. We used multiscale multivariable species-distribution modelling to evaluate the effects of topography, land use, transport infrastructure and settlements on habitat suitability for elephants throughout Yunnan during 2012–2021, using data from literature records, field surveys and camera traps. Elephant distribution was strongly influenced by the presence of forest measured at coarse (32-km) scales, with forest fragmentation and percentage cover together accounting for 64% of total variability, whereas settlements and infrastructure had a relatively minor effect (1.7%). Almost 17,430 km2 of habitat, mostly along the border with Myanmar and Lao PDR, was predicted to be highly suitable for elephants, and a smaller amount in two prefectures that currently lack elephants. We estimate that Yunnan could support an additional 810 (range 300–1469) elephants, more than twice the current population. However, 90% of habitat predicted to be suitable was outside currently protected areas. By making conservative predictions about the potential for restoration or enhancement of habitat, we project that Yunnan could sustain a further 305 elephants, bringing the total population to 1408. Our results have relevance for planning of a proposed national park for elephants in the province.

Conserved core microbiota in managed and free-ranging Loxodonta africana elephants.

The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in animal health and homeostasis, particularly in endangered species conservation. This study investigated the fecal microbiota composition of European captive-bred African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed in French zoos, and compared it with wild African savanna elephants. Fecal samples were collected and processed for DNA extraction and amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The analysis of α and β diversity revealed significant effects of factors such as diet, daily activity, and institution on microbiota composition. Specifically, provision of branches as part of the diet positively impacted microbiota diversity. Comparative analyses demonstrated distinct differences between captive and wild elephant microbiomes, characterized by lower bacterial diversity and altered co-occurrence patterns in the captive population. Notably, specific taxa were differentially abundant in captive and wild elephants, suggesting the influence of the environment on microbiota composition. Furthermore, the study identified a core association network shared by both captive and wild elephants, emphasizing the importance of certain taxa in maintaining microbial interactions. These findings underscore the impact of environment and husbandry factors on elephant gut microbiota, highlighting the benefits of dietary enrichment strategies in zoos to promote microbiome diversity and health. The study contributes to the broader understanding of host-microbiota interactions and provides insights applicable to conservation medicine and captive animal management.

Identifying potential measures of stress and disturbance during a captive to wild African elephant reintegration.

There is increasing evidence of compromised welfare for elephants managed in captivity. Should such facilities eventually close, more elephants will need to be rehabilitated and reintegrated into the wild. The goal of such reintegration would be to restore any physical or psychological aspects of the elephant that may have been compromised in captivity, followed by introduction into a free-roaming system where they can interact with other elephants. However, to achieve this goal, the reintegration methods implemented need to be assessed to ensure that welfare remains the priority. The objective of this study was to test whether parameters generally associated with stress and disturbance in African elephants, respond to changes in potentially stressful environmental conditions, assessed at multiple temporal scales ranging from minutes to months. The main changes in environmental conditions that were investigated included the different phases of reintegration of a group of elephants from captivity into the wild. Stress and disturbance related parameters used for comparisons included physiological responses, namely the extent of temporal gland secretions (eTGS) and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels as well as behavioural responses, namely the display of stereotype and stress-related behaviours. Results showed that eTGS significantly increased during the initial release of the elephants compared to when in captivity. Stereotypic behaviours were only recorded during the captive phase and immediately ceased after release. Faecal GCM levels spiked in the first year after release before decreasing back to pre-reintegration levels during the third year. These findings indicate that fGCM levels, the eTGS and disturbance related behaviours all proved effective in explaining the changes in stress and disturbance experienced by elephants during the initial years after being reintegrated from captivity into the wild.

Integrated Management of Human-Elephant Conflict-A Success Story Involving Surgical Intervention on a Wild Elephant

Integrated Management of Human-Elephant Conflict-A Success Story Involving Surgical Intervention on a Wild Elephant

Innovating to solve a novel puzzle: wild Asian elephants vary in their ability to problem solve

Innovating to solve a novel puzzle: wild Asian elephants vary in their ability to problem solve

Experiences and emotional responses of farming communities living with Asian Elephants in Southern Sri Lanka

Individuals’ tolerance toward wildlife can be based on a combination of tangible benefits and costs (e.g. economic gains and losses) as well as intangible benefits and costs (e.g. shared values and risk perceptions). Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) potentially present both types of benefits and costs for rural communities. We examined which factors were associated with emotional responses toward wild Asian Elephants among agriculturalists using a questionnaire survey of 300 households situated around the Wetahirakanda sanctuary connecting Udawalawe and Lunugamwehera National Parks, Sri Lanka. Respondents were all from the Sinhala-Buddhist ethno-religious majority with average annual household incomes of Rs. 339,335 LKR (∼$2610 USD). We found that none of the surveyed households derived any economic benefits from tourism despite the proximity of two national parks, whereas 171 (57%) had experienced crop damage by Elephants. Though the median annual income lost due to elephants was Rs.50,000 LKR (4%), 21 households (7%) had losses exceeding 100%. Only six individuals (2%) recollected any human fatalities in their communities. Only three individuals reported positive feelings toward elephants, whereas all others had negative or neutral feelings. Economic factors were not significant predictors of feelings toward elephants, whereas fear of elephants and worry about crop damage had the largest and most significant negative effects. Our findings suggest that it might not be sufficient to reduce losses solely at an individual level, but that human-elephant coexistence interventions should target communities as a whole to reduce the spill-over effects of worry and anxiety by association with others who have experienced loss.

How human-elephant relations are shaped: A case study of integrative governance process in Xishuangbanna, China

The conservation of nature is of paramount importance for preserving biodiversity. However, it can also give rise to conflicts and challenges for communities dependent on natural resources. In this paper, we focus on the issue of Human-Elephant conflict (HEC) in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, China, and investigate the causal linkages between governance systems and HEC. Our research presents a comprehensive case study of a village located within the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, delving into the intricate dynamics of human-elephant relationships spanning a three-decade period. Drawing on the integrated governance (IG) theory and actor-centered power (ACP) perspectives, we analyze the influence and interaction of three policy systems—Asian elephant conservation policy, agricultural development policy, and forestry policy—on the governance of HECs. Through our examination of power dynamics among multiple actors involved in policy formulation and those affected by policies, we aim to identify the driving forces influencing governance performance. We have identified noteworthy patterns of synergy and conflicting interests among agricultural, forestry, and elephant conservation policies, which have evolved at different stages of governance. The interplay between these policy systems significantly influences the habitat of wild elephants, the land-use patterns of adjacent communities, and the livelihood strategies adopted by local farmers. As a result of these interactions, an adaptive governance strategy on Human-Elephant Conflicts has emerged. Our findings offer novel perspectives on understanding the nuanced transitions in human-elephant relationships, providing valuable insights into the implications of policy interactions.

Proximate composition and mineral profile of elephants forages in the Savannah ecological zone of Ghana

ABSTRACT This study evaluated the proximate and mineral composition of various parts of Balanites aegyptiaca, Mitragyna inermis, Cassia sieberiena, Kigelia africana, Detarium microcarpum, Terminalia laxiflora, Ficus platyphylla and Climber plant (Liana) as feeds of elephants in the savannah ecological zone of Ghana. The proximate composition was carried out using the methods of the Association of official analytical chemists (AOAC) and the mineral profiles were determined by atomic absorption and flame photometric methods. The highest content of Crude Protein, Crude Fibre, Ash, Moisture and Nitrogen free extract were 12.0% ± 0.01, 15.3% ± 0.01, 14.6% ± 0.0, 7.5% ± 0.01, 76.6% ± 0.01 for Ficus platyphylla, Tamarindus indica, Balanites aegyptiaca and Detarium microcarpum, respectively. The mineral profiling also found appreciable levels of Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Zn, Cu, Fe, Se and Mn at concentrations (mg/kg) of 4.6 ± 0.00, 0.4 ± 0.01, 0.4 ± 0.01, 5.1 ± 0.01, 0.11 ± 0.01, 1.07 ± 0.008, 0.25 ± 0.005, 0.063 ± 0.0005, 37.48 ± 0.001 for Ficus platyphylla bark, Liana, Terminalia laxiflora bark and leaves, Mitragyna inermis bark, Terminalia laxiflora leaves and Mitragyna inermis leaves, respectively. Presentation of the presence of these important nutrients would be a guide to zoo managers and wildlife practitioners on the best quality of feeds to select for wild elephants.

Attitudes towards the Potential Use of Aversive Geofencing Devices to Manage Wild Elephant Movement.

Aversive geofencing devices (AGDs) or animal-borne satellite-linked shock collars might become a useful tool to mitigate human-elephant conflict (HEC). AGDs have the potential to condition problem elephants to avoid human-dominated landscapes by associating mild electric shocks with preceding audio warnings given as they approach virtual boundaries. We assessed the opinions of different stakeholders (experts, farmers, and others who have and have not experienced HEC; n = 611) on the potential use of AGDs on Asian elephants. Most respondents expressed positive opinions on the potential effectiveness of AGDs in managing elephant movement (62.2%). About 62.8% respondents also provided positive responses for the acceptability of AGDs if pilot studies with captive elephants have been successful in managing their movements. Some respondents perceived AGDs to be unacceptable because they are unethical or harmful and would be unsuccessful given wild elephants may respond differently to AGDs than captive elephants. Respondents identified acceptability, support and awareness of stakeholders, safety and wellbeing of elephants, logistical difficulties, durability and reliable functionality of AGDs, and uncertainties in elephants' responses to AGDs as potential challenges for implementing AGDs. These issues need attention when developing AGDs to increase support from stakeholders and to effectively reduce HEC incidents in the future.

Environmental factors induced crop raiding by wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Eastern Economic Corridor, Thailand

Crop raiding are an increasing concern in wildlife conservation. This study identified the environmental factors that cause wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to enter sub-urban and rural areas and share resources with humans in the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC) in the eastern part of Thailand. The snowball method was used to interview villagers that had crop raiding experienced in seven provinces of the EEC and adjacent provinces in the eastern part of Thailand in 2020, and data from 183 households indicated that crop raiding had increased continuously from 2000 to 2020, especially in Chonburi, Chachoengsao, and Prachinburi provinces, which have seen increases in damaged agricultural areas. MaxEnt analysis showed an increase in incidents of crop raiding, while the elephants distribution area decreased from 9534 km2 in 2000 to 5199 km2 in 2010 and 4850 km2 in 2020. The study area has had land use changes in the low elevations from croplands of cassava and sugar cane to eucalyptus, para rubber, and fruits. These mixed crop plantations provide a pseudo-habitat for wild Asian elephants. The results from this study provide evidence that changes in land use and reduction of suitable habitat are factors that influenced the movement of wild Asian elephants to the rural agricultural areas and increased the incidents of crop raiding.

Identifying Migration Routes of Wild Asian Elephants in China Based on Ecological Networks Constructed by Circuit Theory Model.

Humans overlap with Asian elephants, resulting in frequent costly human-elephant conflicts, which disturb and even threaten local residents. In this study, we treat provincial and national nature reserves where Asian elephants still exist and other alternative habitats suitable for Asian elephants in southern Yunnan, China, as ecological patches. By using this approach, we can treat the terrain and surface state factors that hinder the migration of Asian elephants as a form of ecological resistance surface. We can then use a circuit theory model and remote sensing data to construct an ecological network, which allows us to identify ecological corridors and ecological pinch points. Herein, the possible migration routes of wild Asian elephants were identified. The main results are as follows: (1) In the study area, dense forests with steep slopes and high altitudes, cultivated land, and building land have greater migration resistance, while the gently undulating shrubs, bamboo forests, and grasslands far away from the city have less migration resistance. (2) There are three ecological corridor groups in the study area, mainly composed of shrub and grassland. The ecological corridors identified in this paper are the most likely migration routes of wild Asian elephants in China, and areas with higher simulated current densities reflect a higher probability of Asian elephants passing through. (3) According to the analysis, the ecological pinch points in the study area are 602 km2 in total, and woodland and grassland account for 89.2% of the total ecological pinch area. The areas where the pinch points are located have a high probability of Asian elephants passing through and a narrow space. Our findings can provide suggestions and solutions for the current conservation of wild Asian elephant species, alleviate human-elephant conflicts, promote the harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, and provide reference for biological protection and biological reserve planning.

Thermal Drone Technology Used to Capture Thermoregulation in Wild Sumatran Elephants

Drone technology plays a critical role in supporting conservation efforts for endangered species, not only in terms of species monitoring within various landscapes, but also potentially when applied to behavioral studies to investigate interaction patterns and response to environmental change. We tested a thermal drone to investigate thermoregulation and surface temperature of wild Sumatran elephants in the lowland tropical forest of Jambi, Indonesia. Thermoregulation data was obtained using RGB images and videos, while temperature values were measured from thermal images (R-JPEG) extracted into TIFF equipped with pixel temperature. We detected a visual thermoregulation mechanism known as mud bathing. Our study demonstrated that the trunk functions to draw mud and throw it onto the head, back, and stomach, the tail functions to distribute the mud to all parts of the back of the body, while the ears flapped to keep head temperature cool. Our measurements showed that the surface temperature of Sumatran elephants is between 28.9-30.3°C. The head had a relatively lower temperature than other body parts. This study also revealed that the environmental humidity variable significantly affects the elephant's temperature rise. The use of drone technology for future behavioral studies is recommended as it accurately provides high quality data and can be widely used in any type of terrain.

The power of empathy and positive emotions in enhancing the communication of environmental issues: a case study of ‘wandering elephant in Yunnan’ on twitter

Media narratives in environmental communication often broadcast scientific and complex information from the perspective of professional experts, and while focusing on emotions, fear and worry are being among the most frequently studied. However, the effectiveness of these strategies in raising public awareness has been questioned. Animals are recognized as one of the critical indicators of the ecological environment, therefore defining the most effective strategies that will draw public’s attention to wildlife conservation is an important issue. Actions aimed at increasing the public’s interest and dissemination of related content are the key elements of environmental communication. Based on that, we focus our empirical research on the event known as the Wild Elephant Northward Migration in Yunnan, which gained global popularity in 2021. Choosing Twitter to collect our data, we used text mining methods to investigate 1230 tweets, exploring the mechanism of empathetic narrative in wildlife protection. The study has found that the themes such as warm feelings, diverse subjects, and scientific presentation can help to attract attention, enhance participation, and stimulate sympathetic responses. However, it is also necessary to pay attention to the lack of public participation in environmental issues, being a consequence of audience’s preference for entertaining content, among others. Instead of focusing on negative emotions or scientific language, we aim to provide a new perspective on environmental communication narratives in the era of social media by emphasizing the role of warm emotions in triggering audience’s interaction.

ADVOCACY JOURNALISM: CASE STUDY ON ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN THADAGAM VALLEY, COIMBATORE

Journalists involved in environmental communication go beyond facts and figures to highlight their views on issues of conflict between man and nature. Propelled by the fluidic social media with audience as news makers, their advocacy sails into journalism rather than sticking to the basics of objectivity. Online media, once considered as clicktivism and impulsive, has evolved into a major mobilising force to fight against environmental degradation. Yet, it lacks the trust that traditional media upholds in India.Illegal mining of rich soil in the agricultural fields of Thadagam Valley in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu snowballed into an issue of exploitation of natural resource after South Zone’s National Green Tribunal registered a suo motto case against the clay brick manufacturers in 2021. Closure of the brick factories for over two years through interim orders of the courts was perceived as a big victory for the impleading activists. Advocacy campaigns run by the activists in the traditional and new media keep the cash rich business run for legal cover to restore their operations. At the same time, in-direct and external support from informed sources sustained the activists move further in their fight against pollution of environment and exploitation of natural resources. Wild elephants intruding into farmlands and villages also became an unbearable issue for the inhabitants as the regular paths also got disturbed by the dangerous developments created in the Valley.Influence of political economy, the difference in perspectives between the local and national media over an environmental issue, the stand of political and bureaucratic circles on development, episodic versus thematic coverage in the media, scientific and research back-ups on the issues communicated by the activists are discussed in this conflict-based campaign.

Collective movements during visits to water bodies in wild Asian elephants

Collective movements during visits to water bodies in wild Asian elephants

Factors influencing the habitat suitability of wild Asian elephants and their implications for human–elephant conflict in Myanmar

Factors influencing the habitat suitability of wild Asian elephants and their implications for human–elephant conflict in Myanmar

Elephant Response Unit (Eru) Dalam Upaya Penanganan Interaksi Negatif Antara Gajah Sumatra (Elephas Maximus Sumatranus) Dengan Manusia Di Sekitar Kawasan Taman Nasional Way Kambas

Negative interactions between elephants and humans can cause harm to both parties, one of the efforts made is the implementation of the Elephant Response Unit (ERU) in helping to handle negative interactions between Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) and humans. This study aims to determine the activities and tasks of the Elephant Response Unit (ERU) in handling negative interactions in the area around Way Kambas National Park (TNWK). Data collection was carried out by conducting observations, open interviews and collecting documentation in the form of photos of activities. The research includes direct observation of the border between forest areas and buffer villages, forest security patrols, expulsion of wild elephants and care for tame elephants. The results from direct observations show that there is no infrastructure such as canals and embankments that are evenly distributed in the area around TNWK and the lack of active participation of the community in several buffer villages in helping to handle negative interactions. Security patrol activities are in the form of tracking to identify and look for the presence of illegal activities carried out by humans in forest areas and elephant eviction patrols using tame elephants to repel wild elephants. The management of activities carried out by the Elephant Response Unit (ERU) is very important because it can help handle negative interactions between elephants and humans and safeguard forest areas.