Wild Boar Carcasses Research Articles

One Health approach in free-ranging systems – bovine tuberculosis as a model

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) infection in wildlife represents one of the main animal health risks for free-ranging animal husbandry systems in Europe. A regular surveillance is essential for assessment the real problem and for determination of bio-security rules for these husbandry systems. Based on previous studies, we hypothesized that post-mortem examination on submandibular lymph node (smLN) of hunter-harvested wild boars can be a useful method to follow bTB epidemics and to assess the risk of a certain environment. During a hunting season between November 2015 and January 2016, we examined 287 wild boar carcasses inside a known bTB hot-spot and 214 ones outside of that. We found 92 and 25 carcasses with suspect bTB lesions, respectively. Only one carcass showed generalized symptoms and all of the others were detectable solely by section. Our results suggest that surveillance based on smLN section of wild boars can show bTB hot-spots and hereby, this is applicable to forecast epidemiological risk. Moreover, this study confirmed that visual-only game meat inspection would miss most of the suspect bTB lesions. Therefore, it is unsuitable to integrate into an epidemiological surveillance system.

African swine fever virus introduction into the EU in 2014: Experience of Latvia

African swine fever (ASF) virus was introduced in Latvia in June 2014. Thirty-two outbreaks in domestic pigs and 217 cases in wild boar were notified in 2014. Twenty-eight outbreaks (87.5%) were primary outbreaks. The contagiosity within pig herds was low. Failure to use simple biosecurity measures to reduce the chance of virus introduction, for example by inadvertent feeding of locally produced virus contaminated fodder were the main causes for the outbreaks in backyard holdings. The infection in wild boar survived locally in two different areas with a low prevalence and a slow spread. The persistence of the infection in wild boar within an area was most probably linked to wild boar scavenging the carcasses of infected wild boar.

A new genus and species of the subtribe Thyreophorina (Diptera, Piophilidae) from Japan

A new genus, Diacanthomyia gen. nov. assigned to the subtribe Thyreophorina of the family Piophilidae is described based on a new species, Diacanthomyia okidoi sp. nov. recently found in Honshu and Kyushu, Japan. The new genus is somewhat similar to the European Centrophlebomyia of the subtribe. However, the new genus is distinguished from the known genera of the subtribe by the following combination of characters: body extensively pollinose or pruinose, 2 pairs of strong reclinate fronto-orbital bristles, 1-2 strong subvibrissal bristles in addition to 2 strong vibrissae, prosternum setose, 1 presutural dorsocentral, 1 strong anterior postsutural intra-alar, scutellum with 2 pairs of scutellar bristles without additional setulae, extensively microtrichose wing membrane, a dark round spot at r-m crossvein and a dark stripe covering m-m crossvein, and vein CuA+CuP abruptly terminated distant from wing margin. The type species inhabits evergreen broadleaved and deciduous broadleaved forests and adults appear during the cold season from December to March. Adults are attracted to decaying carcasses of Japanese deer and wild boar and traps baited with decaying pork spareribs and chicken meat with bones. The larvae of this species feed on decaying meat and marrow of deer, take less than 2 months to grow to mature larvae, and enter into diapause in the soil until autumn.

Detection and characterisation of Yersinia enterocolitica strains in cold-stored carcasses of large game animals in Poland

Yersinia enterocolitica is an important foodborne pathogen. The aim of the present study was to identify the bioserotypes and virulence markers of Y. enterocolitica strains isolated from three different anatomical regions of cold-stored carcasses of large game animals intended for human consumption. Y. enterocolitica strains were found in 12/20 (60%) of the roe deer carcasses examined, 7/16 (43.8%) of red deer carcasses and 11/20 (55%) of wild boar carcasses. Of the 52 Y. enterocolitica strains, 19 were isolated from the perineum, followed by 17 strains from the peritoneum of the longissimus dorsi muscle and 16 from the tonsils. Only one strain was isolated from warm culture. Bioserotype 1A/NI was the most commonly found and was detected in 29/52 isolates. All isolates contained amplicons corresponding to ystB gene fragments. The relatively high degree of carcass contamination with Y. enterocolitica is of concern due to the growing popularity of game meat with consumers.

SUGGESSTED MODEL FOR MONITORING AND CONTROL OF FOODBORNE PATHOGENS IN WILD BOAR'S MEAT

Wild animal meat harvesting and processing is signifi cantly different from classical livestock meat production and represents a challenge by itself.Implementation of concept “from forest to fork” encompasses influence of hunting ground ecology, type of hunting, fi eld evisceration of hunted game, meat inspection aft er shooting or transport etc. The objective of this paper was to propose a model for monitoring and control of food born pathogens in wild boar´s meat. Hazard analysis emphasized the importance of several pathogens: Mycobacterium spp., Salmonella spp., Trichinella spp., and a fi ve-step control program were proposed. The program includes management of microbial contamination of wild boar meat, control measures for live animals, control measures during hunting and aft er shooting, guidelines for offi cial meat inspection with specific details for control of identifi ed hazardous pathogens and control measures for wild boar carcasses processing. Th e research on presence of food born pathogens in wild boar meat is still scarce, while the Trichinella spp. live cycle is well described and there are relevant data about epidemiology and natural reservoirs of the parasite in this part of Europe, little is known about tuberculosis and salmonellosis prevalence in wild boar population. Thus, implementation of control program, with strictly defi ned control measures cannot be overemphasized, and should include veterinary offi cials as well as hunters and others involved in game meat chain.

The Microbiological Status of Carcasses from Wild Boar in Serbia

In this study, the microbiological status of wild boar carcass meat and the likely sources of its contamination were investigated. Wild boar carcasses (125) were analysed for Total Viable (TVC) and Enterobacteriaceae Count (EBC). The mean TVC and EBC on the skin were 3.5 and 2.1 log10 cfu/cm2, whereas higher levels of 4.3 and 2.9 log10 cfu/cm2 were determined on carcass meat, respectively. No difference was determined when TVC and EBC were compared between animals shot in the abdominal region and those shot elsewhere, indicating that inadequate hygiene in carcass handling was the reason for high level of microbiological contamination.

Attitudes and Beliefs of Pig Farmers and Wild Boar Hunters Towards Reporting of African Swine Fever in Bulgaria, Germany and the Western Part of the Russian Federation.

This study investigated the attitudes and beliefs of pig farmers and hunters in Germany, Bulgaria and the western part of the Russian Federation towards reporting suspected cases of African swine fever (ASF). Data were collected using a web-based questionnaire survey targeting pig farmers and hunters in these three study areas. Separate multivariable logistic regression models identified key variables associated with each of the three binary outcome variables whether or not farmers would immediately report suspected cases of ASF, whether or not hunters would submit samples from hunted wild boar for diagnostic testing and whether or not hunters would report wild boar carcasses. The results showed that farmers who would not immediately report suspected cases of ASF are more likely to believe that their reputation in the local community would be adversely affected if they were to report it, that they can control the outbreak themselves without the involvement of veterinary services and that laboratory confirmation would take too long. The modelling also indicated that hunters who did not usually submit samples of their harvested wild boar for ASF diagnosis, and hunters who did not report wild boar carcasses are more likely to justify their behaviour through a lack of awareness of the possibility of reporting. These findings emphasize the need to develop more effective communication strategies targeted at pig farmers and hunters about the disease, its epidemiology, consequences and control methods, to increase the likelihood of early reporting, especially in the Russian Federation where the virus circulates.

Effect of storage conditions on the biogenic amine content in wild boar meat

Hygienic quality of game meat depends on many factors during and after hunting. Freshness of meat is connected with the concentration of biogenic amines which is related to meat spoilage. The aim of this study was to assess changes in concentration of biogenic amines in raw meat of wild boar (n = 20, mean age 1–2 years) during storage at different temperatures. Carcases of wild boars hunted in winter 2012 in hunting districts of south Moravia were stored unskinned during 21 days at various temperatures (0, 7 and 15 °C). Concentrations of biogenic amines (putrescine, cadaverine, tyramine, tryptamine, phenylethylamine, histamine, spermine and spermidine) were determined in the shoulder and leg muscles by high-performance liquid chromatography in combination with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. Good hygienic quality was maintained when wild boar carcasses were stored for a maximum of 14 days at 0 °C (content of biogenic amines in 3 meat samples exceed the limit of 5 mg/kg on day 21 of storage) or a maximum of 7 days at 7 °C (content of biogenic amines in 4 meat samples exceed the limit of 5 mg/kg on day 14 of storage). The temperature of 15 °C should be considered as unsuitable storage temperature if good hygienic quality of game meat during storage is to be guaranteed (content of biogenic amines in 2 meat samples exceed the limit of 5 mg/kg already on day 7 of storage). The study brings new information about the biogenic amine content and its changes in wild boar meat during the storage period of 21 days.

Trichinella species circulating in wild boar (Sus scrofa) populations in Poland

Hunting in Poland has a long tradition and became more popular after 1990. Each year over 60,000 wild boar are hunted. Some of them may act as Trichinella carriers thus all carcasses of wild boar are systematically sampled in game-handling establishments as part of the post-mortem examination. The aim of the study was to determine the species of Trichinella and to evaluate the year to year differences in the occurrence of those species in the populations of wild boar in Poland. Samples for the study were provided by the Veterinary Inspection Service. Wild boar carcasses were examined using a digestion method. Only samples recognized as positive for Trichinella in these examinations were sent to the National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for confirmation of genus identity. Samples from 450 animals were obtained for the study (380 muscle samples and 70 larval isolates preserved in 90% ethyl alcohol). Tissue samples were digested to isolate larvae. Extracted larval DNA was amplified using a modified multiplex PCR protocol to identify the species of Trichinella. Five larvae from each sample were examined by PCR. The study revealed that Trichinella spiralis and Trichinella britovi are present in wild boar in Poland in a ratio of 3:1. Mixed infections with T. spiralis and T. britovi were found in 1% of the animals.

Alaria alata mesocercariae in wild boar (Sus scrofa, Linnaeus, 1758) in south regions of the Czech Republic

From March 2012 to February 2013, 221 wild boar carcasses obtained from regular hunts in the Czech Republic were tested for Alaria alata mesocercariae using the Alaria-migration-technique. Most samples originated from South Moravia (173), and all 15 positive samples were found in this region, in particular in Tvrdonice (3/10) and Lanžhot (12/28), close to the site of the first description of this parasitic stage in wild boars in the territory of former ČSSR. These hunting grounds are located between the rivers March and Thaya, and rich in floodplains. Among the 38 carcasses tested in this area, higher carcass weights were associated with higher frequency of positive carcasses (P<0.05). Overall frequency of positive carcasses was 15/221 (6.8%). In positive samples (adipose and glandular tissue and muscle), the median number of mesocercariae was 14.3 per 100g (range 3–69).

Findings of Alaria alata mesocercariae in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in eastern Austria

From June 2011 to February 2012, a total of 451 wild boar carcasses from eastern regions of Austria were tested for the presence of Alaria alata mesocercariae by means of a migration technique. Mesocercariae were recovered from carcasses from the province of Lower Austria (25/337 carcasses) and the Burgenland (5/64), but not from Vienna (0/50). In positive samples (fatty and glandular tissue and muscle), the median number of mesocercariae was 4.5 per 35 g. Within districts, but also between animals hunted at the same day in the same hunting area, frequencies of detection varied considerably.

Salmonella in meat from hunted game: A Central European perspective

The occurrence of Salmonella in meat from game hunted in Europe is reviewed, with a focus on Central Europe. Prevalence in fecal samples is different according to region and game species, ranging from <5 (wild ruminants) to ca. 20% (wild boar). The pathogen is rarely recovered from carcasses or meat cuts of wild ruminants (<1%). Prevalences on wild boar carcasses have been reported to range from <1 to ca. 7%, the tonsils presumably constituting a main reservoir on the eviscerated carcass. On meat cuts from game, recent German and EU (EFSA) reports indicate a prevalence of <1%. A number of Salmonella enterica serovars can be isolated, with highest prevalences of S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis. Persistence of these pathogens in wildlife is a less pressing issue for biology and wildlife conservation than for public health experts, which has been recognized in the framework of zoonoses legislation. On one hand, wildlife is exposed to salmonellae originating from farm animals and humans, and on the other hand, game can be a source of Salmonella in farm animals. Breeding game under intensified conditions (farmed game) as well as extensive breeding of farm animals, notably pigs, can create new epidemiological situations. The pathway of Salmonella from intestinal content of the live animal to individual meat cuts can be described in qualitative terms, yet the relative contribution of the various factors remains to be quantified, which complicates proper risk assessment. Control of Salmonella in the game meat chain is in part based on Good Hygiene Practice from killing and evisceration to chilling and skinning, whereas more detailed data are needed in order to allow risk-based meat inspection.

A Survey of the Microbiological Quality of Kangaroo Carcasses Processed for Human Consumption in Two Processing Plants in Queensland, Australia

An investigation of the microbiological quality of kangaroo carcasses at two Queensland processing plants was carried out. A total of 836 whole muscle samples were taken, 801 from plant A and 35 from plant B. Samples were analyzed for aerobic bacteria, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella. The mean adjusted aerobic plate count (APC) was 2.8 log CFU/g, and counts at the 90th, 95th, and 99th percentiles were 4.2, 4.9, and 6.4 log CFU/g, respectively. The maximum number of bacteria recovered was 6.5 log CFU/g. E. coli was detected in 13.9% of samples, for which the adjusted mean was 0.7 log CFU/g, and counts at the 90th, 95th, and 99th percentiles were 1.4, 2.0, and 3.0 log CFU/g, respectively. Salmonella was detected in 0.84% of samples. There was no significant relationship (P < 0.05) between season and APC or E. coli count. There was a significant relationship (P < 0.001) between Salmonella prevalence and summer. The microbiological quality of Queensland kangaroo carcasses is similar to that obtained during other excision-based studies of kangaroo, wild boar, and beef carcasses.

Pig, F1 (wild boar x pig) and wild boar meat quality

Sixteen carcasses of wild boars, pigs, hybrids F1 (wild boar x pig) and reared wild boar have been examined to study the meat quality and the fatty acid composition. Four carcasses came from hunted wild boars and twelve from animals reared in outdoor pens till nine months of age. The meat produced by the hunted wild animals, although not marketable, offers the best quality and nutritional characteristics. The use of hybrids reared in outdoor pens can approximate or equalize the hunted wild boars meat traits. Reared wild boar meat has, in the complex, better compositional characters than hybrids and domestic groups, but acidic quality of fat is not particularly useful for human feeding.

Two sides of the same coin—rocks, bones and site function of Picareiro Cave, central Portugal

The issue of site function rarely has been a main focus in the study of Portuguese Upper Paleolithic. This fact may be related to a lack of interest in this research area. More likely, however, it is due to the fact that there are relatively few Paleolithic sites with data that allow a serious study of site function. At Picareiro Cave, central Portugal, there are various data sets from level F/G dated to the latter Magdalenian that are adequate for this type of research. These are habitat structures, lithic artifacts, macro- and mesofauna, as well as 3D location of all artifacts and fauna larger than 1 cm. Based on the interpretation of the analytical results of each data set, it is possible to reconstruct site function of this particular level of Picareiro Cave. The morphology of one of the hearths, being very large in size, with the base prepared and a pavement surrounding it, as well as the condition and diversity of fauna, indicates that it was used for processing the meat of rabbits, red deer, and wild boar, probably through smoking and grilling. All of the evidence from the different types of data (lithic artifacts, habitat structures, use of space, and fauna) indicate that Layers F/G of Picareiro Cave are the result of a specific task, that of processing animal carcasses of rabbits, red deer, and wild boar.

Bovine tuberculosis in wild boar ( Sus scrofa), red deer ( Cervus elaphus) and cattle ( Bos taurus) in a Mediterranean ecosystem (1992–2004)

During the last 12 years, an increasing frequency in condemnation of hunted red deer and wild boar carcasses due to the presence of tubercle-like lesions has been observed in Extremadura (Western Spain). Before 1993, tuberculosis was a very rare finding in hunted animals. The current tuberculosis regional prevalence in cattle approaches 0.4% after years of expensive test and slaughter campaigns. It is imperative to investigate the epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infection in red dear and wild boar in order to keep a good health status and to maintain the effectiveness of domestic species TB eradication programs. The present paper evaluates the problem in Sierra de San Pedro, estimating the prevalence of TB in wild boar and red deer, the main wild artiodactyls in the area, and domestic cattle since 1992–2004, by the use of a low-cost surveillance method based on detailed pathological inspection of hunted animal carcasses. Microbiology and molecular epidemiology studies on several M. bovis isolates from domestic and wild animals helped to define the interspecies contacts. These findings, as well as recent history of game estates management and descriptive epidemiology field work, throw light on the rise and maintenance of these epizootics.

Quality of wild boar meat and commercial pork

Presently there is a growing interest in the production and marketing of wild boar meat, and to attend a differentiated consumer demand the quality attributes of this product should be well established. To characterize the quality of wild boar meat in comparison to commercial pork, post mortem changes in the longissimus dorsi and semimembranosus muscles were determined by pH and temperature decline, and color (CIE L*a*b*) measurements. Water holding capacity (WHC) was determined by the compression method and the exudate loss (EL) by the drip loss test. Decline in longissimus dorsi muscle pH of wild boar was gradual and in the pork it was faster and more extensive. Temperature differences were observed in some post mortem times, and the lowest values were found in wild boar carcasses. Wild boar meat presented lower values of L* (brightness) and b* (yellow color intensity), and higher values of a* (red color intensity) than pork. The WHC of the wild boar meat was similar to pork, but the EL in female wild boar meat was lower than in pork.