Wiener Diversity Index Research Articles

The Effect of Sampling Schedule on Assessment of Dietary Measures: Evidence From Blue Monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni)

ABSTRACTAccurately assessing primate diets is important in studies of behavioral ecology and evolution. While previous research has compared sampling methods (scan, focal), we examined how sampling schedule influences accuracy of dietary measures. We define sampling schedule as the combined distribution (random vs. consecutive) and frequency of sampling days within a given month. Under field conditions, time may be required to locate a study group, and we therefore also subtracted 1, 2, or 3 h from the beginning of all non‐consecutive days in each sampling schedule to mimic observation time lost to search. From a dense (near daily) 5‐year record of feeding behavior derived from focal animal follows of adult females in five wild blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis) groups, we created data subsets matching various sampling schedules, and compared monthly dietary measures calculated from each subset to those based on the full data set. These measures included (1) the proportion of observation time feeding on fruit, (2) diet composition (three top‐ranked food items), (3) species richness of plant diet, (4) Shannon–Wiener diversity index based on plant species, and (5) Holmes–Pitelka index expressing dietary overlap with the previous month. We used generalized linear mixed models to assess how frequency and sampling type (a combination of distribution and hours lost) relate to a subset's deviation from the full data set, where a smaller deviation (or higher chance of matching, for diet composition) implies greater accuracy. For all dietary measures, increasing observation frequency increased accuracy. The response to distribution varied among measures, but sampling types generally differed more at lower frequencies. Deviation varied widely within and between dietary measures, and some sampling schedules resulted in values with large percentage differences from the “full” data. Accordingly, when designing and comparing studies, researchers should consider how sampling schedules may influence the accuracy of the dietary measures of interest.

Multivariate Environmental Factors and Seasonal Spatial Dynamics Affecting the Phytoplankton Community in Yazhou Bay, South China Sea

This study investigated phytoplankton and water environmental factors in Yazhou Bay, South China Sea, during the winter, spring, and summer of 2023. It examined phytoplankton community structure, subgroup heterogeneity, and key environmental drivers. Phytoplankton abundance ranged from 0.08 to 14.30 × 10⁴ cells·L−1, with high concentrations in estuary and nearshore zones. In summer, currents carry phytoplankton offshore, with stratification leading to high sedimentation in southern offshore waters. RDA results indicated that in winter and spring, inorganic nitrogen mainly influences phytoplankton distribution, while silicate is the primary factor in summer. Although seasonal differences in total phytoplankton abundance are minimal, significant horizontal and vertical distribution variations exist. Diverse preferences of different phytoplankton species for temperature, salinity, nitrogen, and phosphorus result in high species diversity. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′) averages 3.96 ± 0.09, and the Pielou evenness index (J) averages 0.82 ± 0.01. Dominant species include Pseudo-nitzschia pungens, Skeletonema costatum, and Rhizosolenia sinica. Influenced by external oceanic water masses, estuary input, and islands, phytoplankton subgroups show regional and seasonal variations. Despite recorded harmful algal blooms (HABs) in adjacent waters, Yazhou Bay’s high biodiversity and low cell density suggest a low HAB risk, though future risks due to climate change and human activities remain.

Biochar Organic Fertilizer Combined with Indigenous Microorganisms Enhances the Growth of Landscape Grass Cultivated in a Substrate Mixed with Iron Tailings and Mining Topsoil

Iron tailings from the mining process occupy vast land areas and pose a significant ecological risk. In order to reuse iron tailings resources and carry out in situ ecological restoration of a mine, in this study, a medium of mixed iron tailings and mining topsoil (m:m = 3:1) was used to plant landscape grasses, including Lolium perenne L. (L. perenne), Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. (P. alopecuroides), Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. (M. officinalis), and Medicago sativa L. (M. sativa). Biochar and chicken manure were used as biochar organic fertilizers and indigenous microorganisms were isolated from the rhizosphere soil of tested grasses. They were applied to enhance landscape grass growth by regulating rhizosphere microbial communities and nutrient conditions. The results showed that the biochar organic fertilizers significantly promoted the growth of the four landscape grasses, notably P. alopecuroides, increasing plant height, root length, root weight, and leaf fresh weight by 169%, 60%, 211%, and 388%, respectively. Additionally, L. perenne exhibited the greatest height increase (10%) following the application of bacterial solutions. Moreover, indigenous bacterial solutions enhanced chlorophyll content and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity, with P. alopecuroides showing the highest chlorophyll increase of 58% and M. sativa exhibiting a 30.58% rise in PAL activity. The biochar organic fertilizer also significantly elevated soluble protein content in P. alopecuroides and M. sativa by 195% and 152%, respectively. It also effectively enhanced peroxidase (POD) activity in Poaceae grasses by 120% to 160%. After adding indigenous microorganisms, the rhizosphere soil of the landscape grass showed the highest Shannon–Wiener diversity index, reaching 3.561. The rhizosphere soil of M. officinalis had the highest microbial richness, with a value of 39. Additionally, the addition of indigenous microorganisms increased the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content of the four plants by 8–19%, 6–14%, and 8–18%, respectively. This study offers a new approach for managing mining waste and ecological restoration in mining areas.

Diversity Patterns of Plant Communities along an Elevational Gradient in Arid and Semi-Arid Mountain Ecosystems in China

Quantitative classification and ordination are instrumental in improving our understanding of plant community patterns and facilitating effective conservation efforts in national mountain ecosystems worldwide. However, there has been a lack of relevant research focused on arid and semi-arid mountain ecosystems. This study aims to address this gap by investigating the Ningxia Helan Mountain National Nature Reserve (located in Northwest China). We conducted a comprehensive study on the patterns of plant communities and their association with environmental factors across a broad elevation range from 1200 m a.s.l. to 2600 m a.s.l. Our findings revealed the presence of 121 angiosperm species across 41 families, with vegetation classified into six distinct groups through two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) along the elevational gradient. Notably, the communities of Ulmus, Prunus, and Stipa in the middle elevation range exhibited the highest Shannon–Wiener (SW) and Simpson (SN) diversity indices, and these indices followed a single-peak pattern with increasing elevation. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) further revealed six distinct yet interrelated plant communities, revealing elevation (ELE) and the biological aridity index (BK) as the most influential environmental factors influencing plant communities’ distribution. This understanding is critically important for biodiversity conservation and the management of ecosystems in arid and semi-arid mountain ecosystems.

Biodiversity and Soil Reinforcement Effect of Vegetation Buffer Zones: A Case Study of the Tongnan Section of the Fujiang River Basin

The riparian vegetation buffer zone is an important component of riverbank ecosystems, playing a crucial role in soil consolidation and slope protection. In this study, the riparian vegetation buffer zones in the Tongnan section of the Fujiang River Basin were selected as the research object. Surveys and experiments were conducted to assess the species composition and the soil and water conservation effectiveness of the riparian vegetation buffer zone. There are a total of 35 species, mainly comprising angiosperms and ferns. The dominant species include Cynodon dactylon, Setaria viridis, Phragmites australis, Erigeron canadensis, and Melilotus officinalis. The Patrick richness index (R) and Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H) are more significantly influenced by the types of land use in the surrounding area, whereas the impact on the Simpson diversity index (D) and Pielou uniformity index (E) is comparatively less pronounced. When the root diameter is less than 0.2 mm, the tensile strength of Cynodon dactylon roots is the highest. For root diameters larger than 0.2 mm, Melilotus officinalis roots exhibit the highest tensile strength. The presence of plant root systems significantly reduces erosion, delaying the time to reach maximum erosion depth by 1–4 min, decreasing erosion depth by 9–38 mm, and reducing the total amount of erosion by 20.17–58.90%. The anti-scouribility effect of Cynodon dactylon is significantly better than that of Setaria viridis. The root system notably enhances soil shear strength, delaying the shear peak by 0.26–4.8 cm, increasing the shear peak by 4.76–11.37 kPa, and raising energy consumption by 23.76–46.11%. Phragmites australis has the best resistance to shear, followed by Erigeron canadensis, with Melilotus officinalis being the least resistant. Therefore, to balance the anti-scouribility effect and shear resistance of plant roots, it is recommended to use a combination of Cynodon dactylon and Phragmites australis for shallow-rooted and deep-rooted planting. This approach enhances the water and soil conservation capacity of riverbanks.

Evaluation of the stock enhancement effect of Phascolosoma esculenta on macrobenthic communities using diversity and biotic indices in Yueqing Bay, East China Sea

Stock enhancement activities have many benefits but also negative impacts. The macrobenthic diversity index and the M-AMBI index were adopted to assess the effects of stock enhancement of Phascolosoma esculenta on macrobenthic communities and the local ecosystem in Yueqing Bay. The results revealed that the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H’) and Margalef richness index (d) increased in October 2022 after stock enhancement, indicating a positive ecological restoration effect. The average M-AMBI in the intertidal zone of Yueqing Bay was 0.59, indicating good benthic ecological quality. Excluding seasonal factors, the M-AMBI in the intertidal zone increased after stock enhancement, indicating that stock enhancement by Phascolosoma esculenta had a certain positive effect on the intertidal ecological environment of Yueqing Bay. The increase in the M-AMBI occurred mainly in the low-tide zone, increased slightly in the mid-tide zone, and remained basically unchanged in the high-tide zone. On the one hand, Phascolosoma esculenta can accumulate heavy metals from the environment and release a large amount of organic matter throughout its lifecycle, promoting nutrient cycling, which plays a positive role in the environment. On the other hand, Phascolosoma esculenta is an economic species; however, the planting of mangroves in the low tide zone causes fishers to fish in the mid- and high-tide zones, so the changes in the M-AMBI values in each tidal zone are related mainly to Phascolosoma esculenta and anthropogenic disturbances.

Variation in Vegetation Composition and Structure across Mudflat Areas in the Yellow River Delta, China

Variations in vegetation composition and structure are significant signals of the succession of mudflat ecosystems and have important indicative roles in mudflat ecosystem degradation. Due to poor accessibility of vast even mudflat areas, variation in vegetation composition and structure across mudflat areas remains unclear in the Yellow River Delta (YRD), China. We provided an UAV multispectral orthomosaic with 10 cm ground sample distance to classify and compare the vegetation composition and structure across mudflat areas in the YRD. The vegetation classification overall accuracy achieved 95.0%. We found that although a significant difference (p < 0.05) was checked out in terms of the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (from 1.33 to 0.92) and evenness index (from 0.96 to 0.66) among the eight subareas from land to sea, all four dominant vegetation communities (S. salsa, L. bicolor, T. chinensis, and P. australis) were discovered at all eight subareas. Our findings support the idea that the regional environment and local microtopography are the predominant forces for variation in vegetation composition and structure across mudflat areas. From the perspective of vegetation restoration and conservation, changing the local microtopography will be an interesting way to enhance the vegetation diversity of the mudflat ecosystems in the YRD.

Characteristics of plankton community structure and applicability of biomanipulation in midstream of the Jialing River—the biggest tributary of the Yangtze River

Plankton, as an important part of the food chain in the river ecosystem, is sensitive to changes in the environment. To investigate the influence of plankton community structure on the aquatic ecosystem and further verify the applicability of biomanipulation, the midstream of the Jialing River was selected as the study area. A total of 149 species (varieties) from 7 phyla, 18 orders, 34 families, and 72 genera were identified for phytoplankton. A total of 48 species were found for zooplankton. The mean density of phytoplankton was 2.09 × 106 cells/L, and the mean density of zooplankton was 27.1 ind./L. Moreover, the mean values of the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′), Pielou homogeneity index (J′), and Margalef abundance index (D) for phytoplankton were 3.17, 0.76, and 4.47, respectively. The mean values of the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′), Pielou homogeneity index (J′), and Margalef abundance index (D) for zooplankton were 2.64, 0.92, and 5.07, respectively. Based on the diversity indices, the water quality was evaluated as oligo pollution to β-medium pollution level. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was used to explore the relationship between dominant plankton species and environmental factors. The RDA results show that the main environmental factors affecting the community structure of phytoplankton and zooplankton were water temperature (WT), electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total phosphorus (TP), and transparency (Secchi depth; SD). There were 17 functional groups in phytoplankton, which are X1, S1, Y, Y2, and so on. In zooplankton, there were six functional groups, which are Pmsl, Prsu, Pfif, Pmip, Lrsf and Lmic. Many articles have demonstrated the feasibility of using biological manipulation to control algae. The number of piscivorous fish in the midstream of the Jialing River had increased, and phytoplankton density in this survey was significantly decreased. The results show that traditional biomanipulation can be applied to this region, which can provide better scientific support for the future management of the aquatic environment in the Jialing River basin.

Conservation Prioritization of Orthoptera Assemblages on a Mediterranean Island

In response to the ongoing global extinction, conservationists must prioritize future conservation investments to ensure that such measures are biologically effective and economically viable. To propose an effective conservation plan for Orthoptera assemblages on Cyprus Island, we introduce the Standardized Conservation Index (StCI), a biodiversity index accounting for the conservation value (ci), presence, dispersal ability, endemism and conservation status of a species. We evaluated the effect of eleven environmental variables on StCI, ci, species richness and the Shannon–Wiener diversity index, using linear and generalized linear models. Species and environmental data were collected in 60 localities that were placed along four elevational zones and included seven habitat types. Our results revealed the importance of rural mosaics and forests for the conservation of Orthoptera. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index failed to show the importance of high-altitude forests. The Orthoptera species diversity was favored by flower heads and the soil humidity, while rock cover and high shrubs had a positive and negative effect, respectively, on the StCI and ci values. Our results underline the value of StCI in complementing traditional diversity indices, as a scale-independent index that can be used for different taxa to prioritize sites of conservation concern.

Differences in Waterbird Communities between Years Indicate the Positive Effects of Pen Culture Removal in Caizi Lake, a Typical Yangtze-Connected Lake

Considering the negative effects of wetland degradation, various measures have been implemented to restore wetland habitats for aquatic organisms, and their effectiveness levels must be assessed. To reduce the effects of aquaculture on aquatic communities, pen culture facilities, which are widely distributed in Yangtze-connected lakes, were removed in 2018. We surveyed and compared waterbird communities in Caizi Lake during the four months before (2017–2018) and after net pen removal (2021–2022) to evaluate their effect on the diversity and species composition of wintering waterbirds. After net pen removal, the richness and number of individual waterbird species increased, whereas the Shannon–Wiener diversity index did not change because the increase in the bird number throughout the year was mostly associated with a few species. The response of individual numbers of different guilds to the removal of net pens differed. The number of deep-water fish eaters, seed eaters, and tuber feeders increased, whereas that of invertebrate eaters decreased. The species composition also changed, particularly in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the lake. Differences in waterbird communities between the winters of 2017–2018 and 2021–2022 indicated that net pen removal had a positive impact on waterbird communities.

Taxonomic Check List of Ichthyofaunal Diversity at Hiramandalam Reservoir, Srikakulam Dt. Andhra Pradesh, India

The ichthyofaunal investigation revealed that the occurrence of 59 fish species belonging to 11 orders, 23 families, and 39 genera observed Feb 2022 to Jan 2023 at Hiramandalam Reservoir. These fish were transferred to the lab, fixed in glass jars, and then preserved in a 9-10% formalin solution. The fish were identified based on morphometric traits, meristic counts, and descriptive attributes. The fish were identified to the species level using keys for Indian subcontinent fishes. Five of the 59 species are alien. Order cypriniformes was dominant with 24 species which contributed to 40.67% of the total species followed by Siluriformes 12 (20.33%), Anabantiformes 6 (10.16%), Cichliformes with 4 (6.77%), Synbranchiformes 3 (5.08), Anguilliformes. Beloiniformes, Gobiiformes, and Perciformes each with 02 (3.38%), Osteoglossiforme and Cyprinodontiformes each with 1 (1.69%). Recorded families out of 23, Siluriformes 06 (26.08%), Cypriniformes 05 (21.23%), Anabantiformes 3 (13.04%), Beloiniformes 2 (8.69%), Osteoglossiformes, Cyprinodontiformes, Anguilliformes, Gobiiformies, Synbranchiformes, Cichliformes, and Perciformes each 01 (4.34%). The taxonomic trophic levels in the current study were classified as omnivores have a highest percentage of 29 (49.15%), followed by the carnivorous 18 (30.50%), and the herbivorous 11 (19.64%). The population Status is highest with common which contributed to 45.76%, 25.42% were rare, abundant which contributed to 19.64% and moderate which contributed to 10.16% in the total taxa. The composition of trophic levels, IUCN status and Shannon - Wiener Diversity Index and a detailed taxonomic account of these species is documented in this paper

Does road construction have beneficial effects on vegetation biodiversity and tree regeneration in arid woodlands?

AbstractThe regeneration, plant diversity, and change of soil properties are the determining factors affecting the stability of natural forests. Road construction activities are considered among the most important contributing factors. This study was conducted to see if road construction has positive or negative effects on plant diversity, soil physicochemical properties, and tree regeneration in arid woodlands and fulfill the lack of information about road construction in arid woodlands. For this purpose, two roads were selected in the arid woodlands of Bushehr Province, Iran. Twenty‐four sampling plots with an area of 200 square meters were selected on the RE and in the forest interior around the studied roads. Plant species diversity, soil physiochemical properties, and tree regeneration were determined in the studied plots. Our result indicated 49 plant species belonging to 20 families in the studied sites. RE plots represented 37 species while plots in the forest interior represented 40 species. Ficus johannis, Ziziphus spina‐christ, Eryngium billardieri, Astragalus fasciculifolius, Medicago rigidula, Vicia peregrine, and Peganum harmala appeared only in the plots located at the RE. But Dicyclophora persica, Convolvulus acanthocladus, Capparis parviflora, Pulicaria aucheri, Senecio sp., Phlomis olivieri, Teucrium polium, Ziziphora tenuior, Salvia sp., Haplophyllum canaliculatum, Fumaria parviflora, and Scabiosa olivieri appeared only in the forest interior plots. Although no significant differences were observed for richness between the RE and forest interior plots, Shannon–Wiener diversity indices revealed significant differences between the studied groups. Therefore, the composition of the plant species was not the same in the RE and forest interior plots. M. rigidula and V. peregrine as nitrogen‐fixating and palatable plant species appeared in the RE plots but not in the interior plots. Moreover, medicinal plants like D. persica and C. acanthocladus, P. aucheri, H. canaliculatum, and P. olivieri were recorded in the interior plots. Besides, the tree regeneration and soil nutrients were significantly higher in the RE plots compared to the interior plots. Overall, road construction in arid woodlands results in plant and soil community changes. Nitrogen‐fixing species appeared by providing unfavorable environmental conditions for livestock grazing at the RE. Therefore, soil nitrogen and organic matter increased, and consequently, tree regeneration increased in the RE plots. In contrast, medicinal plants appeared in the interior plots, where grazing pressure was higher than in the RE plots. Medicinal plants probably produce some chemical components unfavorable for livestock grazing.

Study on Diversity of Poisonous Weeds in Grassland of the Ili Region in Xinjiang

The frequent occurrence of poisonous grassland weed disasters has weakened the stability of the grassland ecosystem in the Ili region of Xinjiang, and its spread has seriously affected the development of grassland animal husbandry. However, there is no relevant literature to report the species and distribution of poisonous grassland weeds in the Ili region. In this study, investigation was carried out using methods such as personal inspection and sampling methods, and importance-value and diversity analyses were conducted. The results showed that there were 126 species of poisonous weeds in the Ili region, belonging to 91 genera and 28 families. The poisonous weeds of Compositae and Leguminosae accounted for 33.3%. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index of the poisonous weed population was 3.99, the richness of the poisonous weed population was high, and the distribution range was uniform. The Simpson diversity index of poisonous weeds population was 0.97, and the highest importance value of poisonous weeds was Urtica cannabina L., with an importance value of 11.50. The evenness index of the poisonous weed population was 0.83; the spatial distribution pattern of the poisonous weed population tended to aggregate distribution. This study lays a foundation for the control of poisonous weeds and the sustainable development of grasslands in the Ili region of Xinjiang.

Using macroinvertebrate‐based biotic indices and diversity indices to assess water quality: A case study on the Karasu Stream (Kastamonu, Türkiye)

AbstractBiomonitoring is an approach that uses indicators or sentinel species to assess the health or pollution of an environment, combining diversity based on specific taxonomic groups with the taxa's indicator of pollution into a single index or score. Benthic macroinvertebrates are among the most preferred and valuable indicators of the biotic index. Our study aims to evaluate water quality and ecological status using biotic and diversity indices based on benthic macroinvertebrates. The macroinvertebrate samples used in this study were collected seasonally from 16 stations determined in Karasu Stream. These samples consist of 14,747 specimens belonging to 9 orders and 40 families of Insecta, Malacostraca, Hirudinea and Oligochaeta. In addition, some physicochemical parameters were measured at the stations. The data obtained were analysed using the Turkey‐Biological Monitoring Working Group (TR‐BMWP), Average Score per Taxon (ASPT), Family Biotic Index (FBI), Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) taxon richness index, and Shannon–Wiener, Simpson and Hill's diversity indices. Our results showed that the last six stations of Karasu Stream were under pressure due to various anthropogenic effects. According to biotic indexes, the ecological quality status of the water in the stations was determined to be high or good in the first 10 stations and average, poor or bad in the last 6 stations. The results of our study showed that TR‐BMWP, FBI and EPT indices are more reliable in determining water quality than the ASPT index and reflect the environmental situation better. Since the TR‐BMWP index is adapted to macroinvertebrate taxa distributed in Türkiye, it can be used as a suitable tool for evaluating other rivers' water quality in Türkiye.

The Study of Exotic and Invasive Plant Species in Gullele Botanic Garden, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

The Gullele Botanic Garden was established to preserve and safeguard indigenous, rare, endemic, endangered, and economically important plant species. The objective of this study was to identify and map the exotic, invasive, and potentially invasive plant species that are present in the garden’s various land use types, such as natural vegetation, plantations, roadsides and garden edges. The research involved laying plots at different distances in each land use type and collecting vegetation data with geo-location information. Sorensen’s similarity index was used to measure the floristic similarity between the sampled land use types. Data on species density and abundance were analyzed using the corresponding formula. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index and evenness were used to compute the diversity of the species in each land use type using R packages. ArcGIS version 10.5 was used to track the geographical distribution and map the exotic, invasive, and potentially invasive species that exist in all land use types of the garden. A total of 80 plant species belonging to 70 genera in 44 families were recorded in the garden. Asteraceae, Myrtaceae, and Fabaceae comprised the highest number of species. Acacia decurrens, Acacia melanoxylon, Cuscuta campestris, Galinsoga parviflora, Nerium oleander, and Cyathula uncinulata were the most prevalent invasive and potentially invasive species. The study found that the roadside and garden edge land use types had the most diverse exotic and invasive plants. The total density of exotic species was 2.36 plants/m2. The potential possibility of these plants in displacing the native plant species is quite high unless the introduction of exotic plant species is inspected and appropriate management strategies for invasive species are put in place.

The Importance of Wetlands for the Conservation of Birds in Tigray National Regional State (Northern Ethiopia)

Many birds use wetland habitats for all or part of their lives. This study was conducted to investigate the significance of wetlands and associated habitats for bird conservation in the central zone of Tigray, northern Ethiopia, from June 2022 to May 2023. The point count method was used to study the bird assemblage structure and diversity. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index and ANOVA were used to analyze the wetland bird community structure. A total of 4337 individual birds belonging to 120 species, 15 orders, and 41 families were recorded. Among the identified bird species, the Abyssinian catbird, white‐winged cliff chat, Abyssinian longclaw, wattled ibis, and black‐winged lovebird are endemic and near‐endemic species, which are found only in Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Passeriformes order had the greatest number of species (n = 68), followed by the Columbiformes order (n = 9). The​ Mai‐Shigurti Wetland had the greatest abundance of birds (N = 2472), while the Hatsebo Wetland had the least (N = 936). A high abundance of birds was recorded during the wet season (N = 2805), and a low abundance was recorded during the dry season (N = 1532). A significant difference in the abundance of bird species was observed among wetlands and seasons (p < 0.05). The highest species diversity (H′ = 4.13) was recorded in Mai‐Shigurti during the wet season, whereas the lowest was recorded in Hatsebo during the dry season (H′ = 3.2). The highest species evenness was recorded in Hatsebo (E = 0.82) during the dry season, and the lowest was recorded in Mai‐Shigurti (E = 0.72) during the wet season. The results show that wetlands support a high diversity of birds; however, they are highly threatened by anthropogenic threats, including solid waste disposal, erosion, agricultural expansion, human settlement, livestock overgrazing, military camping, and eucalyptus cultivation. Therefore, community‐based conservation initiatives should be implemented to mitigate these threats. Moreover, wetland management policies should be established to safeguard wetlands and their biological resources.

KARAKTERISTIK POHON INANG DAN KEANEKARAGAMAN ANGGREK (Orchidaceae) EPIFIT DI HUTAN LINDUNG LUNUNIANAM, DESA FATU’ULAN, KECAMATAN KI’E, KABUPATEN TIMOR TENGAH SELATAN, PROVINSI NUSA TENGGARA TIMUR

This study was conducted to determine the characteristics of orchid host trees, the diversity of epiphytic orchids (Orchidaceae), and the preservation of host trees and epiphytic orchids in the Lununianam protected forest area. This research was conducted in Lununianam Protection Forest, Fatu'ulan Village, Ki'e District, South Central Timor Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. Which is carried out for 1 month, from November to December 2022. This study used purposive sampling methods, surveys, and cruising paths with data analysis using qualitative descriptive and quantitative descriptive analysis. Host tree data was processed using vegetation analysis formulas and orchid data was processed using the Shannon wiener (H') diversity index formula.
 The results showed that there were 5 species of host trees found in the study site, namely forest guava (Syzygium pycnanthum), Matani (Pterocarpus indicus), Tahi (Celtis wightii planch), Kamala (Mallotus philippensis), Jenitri (Elaeocarpus ganitrid). Host trees found in Lununianam Protection forest have the characteristics of large hard and rough bark, have a height range of 12-30 m, and bark overgrown with moss, The results of vegetation analysis of host tree species with the highest Important Value Index namely Syzygium Pycnanthum and Elaeocarpus ganitrus have the lowest Important Value Index. Orchids found in the sampling plot in the Lununianam Protection Forest contained 8 species of epiphytic orchids, namely Dendrobium Sp, Vanda insignis, Eria multiflora, Flickingeria grandiflora, Trichoglottis bipenicillata, Pholidota carnea, Appendicula reflexa Blume, and Ceologyne speciosa. The calculation of Shannon Wiener's diversity index of 1.57 (H') is classified as medium (1<H'<3). The most common type of orchid found is the type Eria multifora with a total of 168 individuals and the type that is less commonly found is Appendicula reflexa Blume with 4 individuals.

Effects of repeated afidopyropen treatment on the structure and function of the soil microbial community

Chemical insecticides are the most effective pest control agents. Afidopyropen is a novel insecticide used against sap-sucking insects, such as aphids. However, the effects of repeated afidopyropen application on the structure and function of soil microorganisms remain unknown. In this study, the changes in the enzyme activities, community structure and function, and relative abundance of antibiotic resistance ontology (ARO) of soil microorganisms were investigated during three repeated afidopyropen applications under laboratory conditions at the maximum recommended dosage (M1) and 10 times the M1 (M10). The neutral phosphatase (NPA) and catalase (CAT) activities in the soil were significantly suppressed after afidopyropen treatment. The Simpson diversity index (1/D) and Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H) also decreased in both the M1 and M10 afidopyropen-treated soils, indicating a remarkable decrease in soil microorganism diversity. The average well color development (AWCD) first increased and subsequently recovered to normal levels after the third application of the insecticide, suggesting that afidopyropen application could increase the metabolic activity of soil microorganisms. Metagenomic analysis showed that repeated afidopyropen application in both the M1 and M10 treatment groups altered the community structure of soil microorganisms, albeit in different ways. Furthermore, repeated afidopyropen application significantly increased the relative ARO abundance, especially in the M10 treatment, with the most dominant AROs being adeF, baeS, and IND-6. These findings reveal the effects of excessive afidopyropen application on soil microorganisms and lay an important foundation for the comprehensive evaluation of the impact of this insecticide on the environment.

Vegetation Analysis of the Area Surrounding a Wild Nest of Stingless Bees Tetragonula laeviceps (Smith, 1857) in Sumedang Regency, West Java

Indonesia is a mega biodiversity country that has a very abundant diversity of plants. Plant diversity is inseparable from the role of insects that help to pollinate them. One such insect is the stingless bee Tetragonula laeviceps, a bee that has a relatively small-to-medium body size and does not have a sting. Sumedang Regency is one of the regencies in the province of West Java; most of the Sumedang area consists of mountains and has protected forest areas with high biodiversity. The purpose of this study is to determine the biodiversity index of the vegetation around the Tetragonula laeviceps wild nests. Data collection is carried out using the method of inventory and systematic checkered lines, with a total plot of 320. The results of the study show that the vegetation is composed of 229 plant species from 75 families. The most dominant vegetation type with the highest value of KR, FR, DR, and INP in all plant categories is the Aren tree species (Arenga pinnata). The Shannon–Wiener diversity index in this tree category is 3186, the pole category is 3107, the sapling category is 3418, the seedling category is 3657, and the understory plants category is 3409, with all of the plant categories included in the high-diversity category.

Effects of Massive Use of Disinfectants on the Plankton Communities in Lakes from Wuhan

The outbreak of COVID-19 led to the extensive use of disinfectants in urban areas. These disinfectants, along with disinfection by-products (DBPs), eventually enter waters and affected the aquatic organisms. But little information could be obtained on disinfectants threatening aquatic ecosystems. This study was conducted to obtain insight into the effects of massive use of disinfectants on freshwater ecosystems, DBPs, phytoplankton, and zooplankton in nine urban and two country lakes in Wuhan during the COVID-19 pandemic; in addition, the residual chlorine in the South Lake (one of the urban lakes), was investigated. The concentration of residual chlorine in the South Lake ranged from 0.000 mg L−1 to 0.427mg L−1, with an average concentration of 0.092 mg L−1. The total concentrations of DBPs (halogenated aliphatic DBPs and aromatic halogenated DBPs) detected in the urban and country lakes ranged from 4.22 μg L−1 to 16.59 μg L−1 and 5.92 μg L−1 to 7.84 μg L−1, respectively. There was no significant difference in DBPs content between urban lakes and country lakes (p < 0.05). Mann–Whitney U tests showed no significant differences in plankton cell density, biomass, and alpha diversity indexes between urban and country lakes, except for the Shannon−Wiener diversity index of phytoplankton. Beta diversity demonstrated that plankton communities at different sampling stations in urban and country lakes were not significantly separated into two groups, but rather intersected each other. Variance partitioning analysis revealed that the composition of plankton communities was primarily influenced by other plankton organisms and community stability under the conditions of the investigated factors. Results indicated that the detected plankton communities in urban lakes from Wuhan were not significantly affected by the use of disinfectants. It could be deduced that the massive use of disinfectants in this outbreak had no significant impact on the plankton communities.