Wide Current Range Research Articles

Improvement of current crowding effect in VCSEL arrays with non-uniform oxidation aperture design

A compact electro-opto-thermal model of 2-D vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) arrays considering the current crowding effect in each array cell is established to study the impact of oxidation aperture on the device performance. Simulated results shows that increasing oxidation aperture of array cell is helpful to improve the uniformity of current density distribution. With careful design of non-uniform oxidation aperture layout, both the uniformity of the temperature distribution and the current distribution is improved by 36.52% and 42.08%, respectively. Furthermore, 3×3 VCSEL arrays with uniform oxidation aperture (array-1) and non-uniform oxidation aperture (array-2) are fabricated and the L-I-V curves of two types of VCSEL arrays at different biases are also measured. The peak output optical power of array-2 is enhanced to 1.83mW with an improvement of 8.91% when compared with that of array-1. Moreover, the total optical output power of array-2 is always superior to that of array-1 over a wide bias current range.

Neuromorphic devices realised using self-forming hierarchical Al and Ag nanostructures: towards energy-efficient and wide ranging synaptic plasticity.

Closely mimicking the hierarchical structural topology with emerging behavioral functionalities of biological neural networks in neuromorphic devices is considered of prime importance for the realization of energy-efficient intelligent systems. In this article, we report an artificial synaptic network (ASN) comprising of hierarchical structures of isolated Al and Ag micro-nano structures developed via the utilization of a desiccated crack pattern, anisotropic dewetting, and self-formation. The strategically designed ASN, despite having multiple synaptic junctions between electrodes, exhibits a threshold switching (Vth ∼ 1-2 V) with an ultra-low energy requirement of ∼1.3 fJ per synaptic event. Several configurations of the order of hierarchy in the device architecture are studied comprehensively to identify the importance of the individual metallic components in contributing to the threshold switching and energy-minimization. The emerging potentiation behavior of the conductance (G) profile under electrical stimulation and its permanence beyond are realized over a wide current compliance range of 0.25 to 300 μA, broadly classifying the short- and long-term potentiation grounded on the characteristics of filamentary structures. The scale-free correlation of potentiation in the device hosting metallic filaments of diverse shapes and strengths could provide an ideal platform for understanding and replicating the complex behavior of the brain for neuromorphic computing.

Pyrolysis-free synthesis of a high-loading single-atom Cu catalyst for efficient electrocatalytic CO2-to-CH4 conversion.

Electrocatalytic CO2-to-CH4 conversion provides a promising means of addressing current carbon resource recycling and intermittent energy storage. Cu-based single-atom catalysts have attracted extensive attention owing to their high intrinsic activity toward CH4 production; however, they suffer from uncontrollable metal loading and aggregation during the conventional pyrolysis process of carbon-based substrates. Herein, we developed a pyrolysis-free method to prepare a single-atom Cu catalyst anchored on a formamide polymer substrate with a high loading amount and well atomic dispersion through a mild polycondensation reaction. Owing to the isolation of copper active sites, efficient CO2-to-CH4 conversion is achieved over the single-atom Cu catalyst, along with the significant suppression of C-C coupling. As a result, the optimal single-atom catalyst with 5.87 wt% of Cu offers high CH4 faradaic efficiencies (FEs) of over 70% in a wide current density range from 100 to 600 mA cm-2 in the flow cell, together with a maximum CH4 partial current density of 415.8 mA cm-2. Moreover, the CH4 FE can reach 74.2% under optimized conditions in a membrane electrode assembly electrolyzer. This work provides new insights into the subtle design of highly efficient electrocatalyst for CO2 reduction.

Exploration of field-like torque and field-angle tunability in coupled spin-torque nano oscillators for synchronization.

We investigate the influence of field-like torque and the direction of the external magnetic field on a one-dimensional array of serially connected spin-torque nano oscillators (STNOs), having free layers with perpendicular anisotropy, to achieve complete synchronization between them by analyzing the associated Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert-Slonczewski equation. The obtained results for synchronization are discussed for the cases of 2, 10, and 100 oscillators separately. The roles of the field-like torque and the direction of the external field on the synchronization of the STNOs are explored through the Kuramoto order parameter. While the field-like torque alone is sufficient to bring out global synchronization in the system made up of a small number of STNOs, the direction of the external field is also needed to be slightly tuned to synchronize the one-dimensional array of a large number of STNOs. The formation of complete synchronization through the construction of clusters within the system is identified for the 100 oscillators. The large amplitude synchronized oscillations are obtained for small to large numbers of oscillators. Moreover, the tunability in frequency for a wide range of currents is shown for the synchronized oscillations up to 100 spin-torque oscillators. In addition to achieving synchronization, the field-like torque increases the frequency of the synchronized oscillations. The transverse Lyapunov exponents are deduced to confirm the stable synchronization in coupled STNOs due to the field-like torque and to validate the results obtained in the numerical simulations. The output power of the array is estimated to be enhanced substantially due to complete synchronization by the combined effect of field-like torque and tunability of the field-angle.

Characterization of a C12A7 electride plasma-based cathode using different keeper orifice sizes

For the operation of electric propulsion systems in space, efficient electron sources are crucial components. Hollow cathodes have been established for many applications since they allow sufficient current ranges at reasonable power requirements and have been proven to operate for several thousands of hours. New approaches are being evaluated to improve these cathodes’ general performance. This publication presents an extended characteristic of a heaterless plasma-based cathode using the emitter material C12A7 electride. The focus is on the relationship between the discharge potential and total discharge power over the discharge current. Furthermore, a characteristic of the discharge performance at lower mass flow rates is presented and discussed. The discharge potential is generally quite constant for a wide range of discharge currents, typical in the range of 30 V and only increases steeply for low discharge current ranges. Successful heaterless ignition and stable operation have been achieved down to 2 sccm krypton flow rate.

Prognosis of Li-ion Batteries Under Large Load Variations Using Hybrid Physics-Informed Neural Networks

The development of new modes of transportation such as electric vertical takeoff and landing aircraft and the use of drones for package and medical delivery have increased the demand for reliable and powerful electric batteries. Therefore, accurately predicting the degradation of a battery’s state-ofhealth (SOH) and state-of-charge (SOC) is a crucial albeit still challenging task. There is a need for models that can accurately predict the SOH and SOC while taking into account the specific characteristics of a battery cell and its usage profile. While traditional physics-based and data-driven approaches are used to monitor the SOH and SOC, they both have limitations related to computational costs or that require engineers to continually update their prediction models as new battery cells are developed and put into use in battery-powered vehiclefleets.Battery capacity degradation can vary from battery to battery and can also be influenced by changes in load due to internal thermal stress. While sophisticated electrochemistry-based models can provide precise predictions of the SOC during adischarge cycle when parameters are well-tuned, using highfidelity models for prognostics purposes can be computationally expensive. Those models also require tuning to specific battery types and at times to specific specimens, thus hindering generalization. In contrast, purely data-driven approaches can learn the relationship between input and output for SOC prediction based on load input, but they require a large and diverse training dataset and lack any physical or electrochemical understanding, making far-ahead predictions challenging if test loading conditions fall outside the training distribution. To address some of the drawbacks of the aforementioned modeling approaches, in this paper, we enhance a hybrid physics-informed machine learning version of a battery SOC model we presented in previous work to predict voltage dropduring discharge. The enhanced model captures the effect of wide variation of load levels, in the form of input current,which causes large thermal stress cycles. The cell temperature build-up during a discharge cycle is used to identify temperature-sensitive model parameters. Additionally, we enhance an existing aging model built upon cumulative energy drawn by introducing the effect of the load level. We then map cumulative energy and load level to battery capacity with a Gaussian process model. To validate our approach we use a battery aging dataset collected on a self-developed testbed, where we used a wide current level range to age battery packs in accelerated fashion. Prediction results show that our model can be successfully calibrated and generalizes across all applied load levels.

Green Synthesis of NiFe2O4 Nano-Spinel Oxide-Decorated Carbon Nanotubes for Efficient Capacitive Performance-Effect of Electrolyte Concentration.

Energy storage applications received great attention due to environmental aspects. A green method was used to prepare a composite of nickel-iron-based spinel oxide nanoparticle@CNT. The prepared materials were characterized by different analytical methods like X-ray diffraction, X-ray photon spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmitted electron microscopy (TEM). The synergistic effect between nickel-iron oxide and carbon nanotubes was characterized using different electrochemical methods like cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charging/discharging (GCD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The capacitances of the pristine NiFe2O4 and NiFe2O4@CNT were studied in different electrolyte concentrations. The effect of OH- concentrations was studied for modified and non-modified surfaces. Furthermore, the specific capacitance was estimated for pristine and modified NiFe2O4 at a wide current range (5 to 17 A g-1). Thus, the durability of different surfaces after 2000 cycles was studied, and the capacitance retention was estimated as 78.8 and 90.1% for pristine and modified NiFe2O4. On the other hand, the capacitance rate capability was observed as 65.1% (5 to 17 A g-1) and 62.4% (5 to 17 A g-1) for NiFe2O4 and NiFe2O4@CNT electrodes.

An artificial neuromuscular junction for enhanced reflexes and oculomotor dynamics based on a ferroelectric CuInP2S6/GaN HEMT.

A neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a particularized synapse that activates muscle fibers for macro-motions, requiring more energy than computation. Emulating the NMJ is thus challenging owing to the need for both synaptic plasticity and high driving power to trigger motions. Here, we present an artificial NMJ using CuInP2S6 (CIPS) as a gate dielectric integrated with an AlGaN/GaN-based high-electron mobility transistor (HEMT). The ferroelectricity of the CIPS is coupled with the two-dimensional electron gas channel in the HEMT, providing a wide programmable current range of 6 picoampere per millimeter to 5 milliampere per millimeter. The large output current window of the CIPS/GaN ferroelectric HEMT (FeHEMT) allows for amplifier-less actuation, emulating the biological NMJ functions of actuation and synaptic plasticity. We also demonstrate the emulation of biological oculomotor dynamics, including in situ object tracking and enhanced stimulus responses, using the fabricated artificial NMJ. We believe that the CIPS/GaN FeHEMT offers a promising pathway for bioinspired robotics and neuromorphic vision.

Estimation of cumulative amplitude distributions of miniature postsynaptic currents allows characterising their multimodality, quantal size and variability

A miniature postsynaptic current (mPSC) is a small, rare, and highly variable spontaneous synaptic event that is generally caused by the spontaneous release of single vesicles. The amplitude and variability of mPSCs are key measures of the postsynaptic processes and are taken as the main characteristics of an elementary unit (quantal size) in traditional quantal analysis of synaptic transmission. Due to different sources of biological and measurement noise, recordings of mPSCs exhibit high trial-to-trial heterogeneity, and experimental measurements of mPSCs are usually noisy and scarce, making their analysis demanding. Here, we present a sequential procedure for precise analysis of mPSC amplitude distributions for the range of small currents. To illustrate the developed approach, we chose previously obtained experimental data on the effect of the extracellular matrix on synaptic plasticity. The proposed statistical technique allowed us to identify previously unnoticed additional modality in the mPSC amplitude distributions, indicating the formation of new immature synapses upon ECM attenuation. We show that our approach can reliably detect multimodality in the distributions of mPSC amplitude, allowing for accurate determination of the size and variability of the quantal synaptic response. Thus, the proposed method can significantly expand the informativeness of both existing and newly obtained experimental data. We also demonstrated that mPSC amplitudes around the threshold of microcurrent excitation follow the Gumbel distribution rather than the binomial statistics traditionally used for a wide range of currents, either for a single synapse or when taking into consideration small influences of the adjacent synapses. Such behaviour is argued to originate from the theory of extreme processes. Specifically, recorded mPSCs represent instant random current fluctuations, among which there are relatively larger spikes (extreme events). They required more level of coherence that can be provided by different mechanisms of network or system level activation including neuron circuit signalling and extrasynaptic processes.

Effect of polyurethane coating on mechanical response of shape memory alloy wires

In micro-electro-mechanical systems, the risk of short circuit arises when shape memory alloy (SMA) wire actuators mistakenly come into contact with other metal parts. Coating the SMAs with insulating layer can solve this problem. However, unlike traditional conductive wires that experience minimal length changes with current, SMA wires undergo significant length variations during electrical execution. This can affect the bonding between the coating and the SMA wires, as well as the mechanical response of the actuators. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of an insulating coating on the mechanical response of SMA wires. The results show that a layer of polyurethane coating provides long-term insulation to the SMA wires. While this coating reduces the recoverable strain of SMA wires under passive heating, its effect on actuation strain under electrical heating is relatively minor. Additionally, the coating enables the SMA wire to work smoothly by relieving overshooting and vibration phenomena during execution, and helps the wire work in a wider current range than an uncoated wire. Moreover, the coating enhances the response speed of SMA wires during power-on but reduces the response speed during power-off, this influence weakens as driving currents increase. These distinct mechanical responses can be primarily attributed to the coating’s influence on heat transfer behavior of the SMA wires.

AgZn-BDC-derived catalyst for CO2 electroreduction to syngas with fixed ratio over wide current density

Electrochemical CO2 reduction (CO2RR) to produce syngas (CO and H2) is an attractive method for achieving carbon neutrality. However, it remains a challenge to simultaneously control the CO/H2 ratio of the syngas produced over a wide range of current densities. Here, we report a bimetallic Ag and Zn MOF-derived catalyst that achieves a stable CO/H2 ratio of around 1:1 over a wide current density range of 50–200 mA cm−2. In situ Raman measurements, XRD pattern and FTIR images demonstrate that the MOF-derived catalyst transforms into Ag2O and ZnO surrounded by amorphous carbon during CO2RR. In-situ ATR-SEIRAS measurements and CO-TPD reason that the Ag and Zn MOF-derived catalyst strengthens the binding strength of *CO, which ends up with the CO to H2 ratio in the syngas approaches 1:1.

Study and implementation of fluxgate current sensor with wireless connectivity for finger exoskeleton rehabilitation

SummaryA fully integrated fluxgate magnetometer has been developed to monitor motor current in a finger exoskeleton device. The use of a fluxgate sensor can provide more accurate and natural movement of the fingers, as well as reducing the weight and complexity of the exoskeleton design. The sensor we developed incorporates several advanced features that provide enhanced sensitivity and accuracy compared to existing state‐of‐the‐art sensors. These features include a fluxgate frontend readout circuit with chopping stabilization technology, which achieves a gain of 14.3 V/T, a low noise density of 4.5 nT/√Hz, and a wide measurement range of ±1.5 mT. The gain variation of the sensor is only 1.5% at an 850 kHz bandwidth, and it has a wide dynamic current range from 0.005 mA to 100 A. The sensor also features an integrated 2.4 GHz wireless circuit for easy data transmission. The use of a fluxgate sensor in monitoring motor torque in the proximal interphalangeal joint can provide more precise and natural finger movement and reduce the weight and complexity of the exoskeleton design.

Improved Characteristics of Fluorene‐Type Polymer Light‐Emitting Devices Based on Multilayer Formation from Polymers and Solution‐Processable Wide‐Bandgap Inorganic Copper(I) Thiocyanate with p‐Type Conduction and High Refractive Index

The functional solution‐processable multilayer formation is a significant factor in the improved characteristics of polymer light‐emitting devices. The improved characteristics of direct current and alternating current (AC)‐driven fluorene‐type polymer light‐emitting devices based on multilayer structures utilizing polymers and solution‐processable inorganic wide‐bandgap semiconductor, copper(I) thiocyanate, CuSCN, which exhibits p‐type conduction and high refractive index, are investigated. For the polymer light‐emitting diodes based on poly(9,9‐dioctylfluorene‐co‐benzothiadiazole), F8BT with CuSCN, the plateau of current efficiency indicates the carrier injection and transport to be balanced at lower current density and the balance to be maintained through the wide current range. CuSCN acts as the hole transport and electron‐blocking layer, although CuSCN acts as a fluorescence quencher for F8BT. The introduction of inorganic/organic hybrid dielectric mirrors, which consists of the alternating layers of inorganic CuSCN and insulating poly(vinylidene fluoride‐trifluoroethylene), P(VDF‐TrFE), into the AC voltage‐driven polymer electroluminescent device (ACEL) structure, is an effective way to achieve both the spectral narrowing and color tunability. Using high‐refractive‐index CuSCN, the color‐tunable emission for ACEL with distributed Bragg reflector mirrors and the electroluminescent (EL) emission from a weak microcavity effect are achieved.

Noise-induced dynamics and photon statistics in bimodal quantum-dot micropillar lasers

Emission characteristics of quantum-dot micropillar lasers (QDMLs) are located at the intersection of nanophotonics and nonlinear dynamics, which provides an ideal platform for studying the optical interface between classical and quantum systems. In this work, a noise-induced bimodal QDML with orthogonal dual-mode outputs is modeled, and nonlinear dynamics, stochastic mode jumping and quantum statistics with the variation of stochastic noise intensity are investigated. Noise-induced effects lead to the emergence of two intensity bifurcation points for the strong and the weak mode, and the maximum output power of the strong mode becomes larger as the noise intensity increases. The anti-correlation of the two modes reaches the maximum at the second intensity bifurcation point. The dual-mode stochastic jumping frequency and effective bandwidth can exceed 100 GHz and 30 GHz under the noise-induced effect. Moreover, the noise-induced photon correlations of both modes simultaneously exhibit super-thermal bunching effects () in the low injection current region. The -value of the strong mode can reach over 6 in the high injection current region. Photon bunching () of both modes is observed over a wide range of noise intensities and injection currents. In the presence of the noise-induced effect, the photon number distribution of the strong or the weak mode is a mixture of Bose–Einstein and Poisson distributions. As the noise intensity increases, the photon number distribution of the strong mode is dominated by the Bose–Einstein distribution, and the proportion of the Poisson distribution is increased in the high injection current region, while that of the weak mode is reduced. Our results contribute to the development preparation of super-bunching quantum integrated light sources for improving the spatiotemporal resolution of quantum sensing measurements and enhancing the security of optical communication.

Electrical and optical characteristics of radio-frequency atmospheric dielectric barrier discharge using anodic alumina barriers

It is widely accepted that dielectrically insulated electrodes can control plasma contraction in radio frequency atmospheric pressure glow discharge at very large currents. It is also known that thin dielectric barriers maximize the permissible discharge current, thus boosting the reactive plasma species and enhancing the application efficacy. An experimental investigation of radio-frequency atmospheric pressure dielectric barrier discharge (rf APDBD) using a thin layer of a novel dielectric, anodic alumina grown by a wet electrochemical process to insulate electrodes is presented in this paper to demonstrate that rf APDBD with anodic alumina barriers remains stable and retains volume without contraction over a wide current range in the γ-mode. The electrical characterization of the rf APDBD is performed using an equivalent electric circuit model based on the measured electrical parameters. In normal glow discharge, the measured impedance data closely matched the simulated data. Optical emission spectroscopy demonstrated that a higher discharge current facilitated active plasma chemistry. The estimated excitation, vibrational, and gas temperatures indicate that rf APDBD with anodized electrodes is well suited for surface treatment and decontamination applications in open air.

선박용 연료전지 시스템을 위한 대전류 전력변환기 개발

Several basic components of the fuel cell system for ships include a fuel cell stack, a power conversion system, a battery, and a control device. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell(PEMFC) is considered the most important component in this system as it has a variety of advantages such as high-power density, fast response speed, and low operating temperature. However, a stable, high-efficiency boost converter must be manufactured to utilize it as a power source for ships due to several drawbacks like low voltage and a wide range of fluctuation and high currents. This paper aims to study the design and implementation of a high-current power conversion system utilizing an insulated resonance converter for the fuel cell system for ships. The proposed power converter in this study consists of a two-stage conversion structure, which incorporates a two-phase interleaved boost converter and a series resonance converter(SRC). The performance of the structure is verified by testing a 30 kW class unit module manufactured.

Choosing a Method for Approximating the Spectral Distribution of Colour LEDs and Comparing their Parameters and Characteristics in Nominal Mode

New technologies and new light sources make it possible to create fundamentally new approaches in the design and construction of lighting devices. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are a relatively new, promising and energy-efficient light source with a few unique properties: long lifetime, high luminous efficiency, aesthetics, environmental friendliness, reliability, high durability, and possibility to create a variety of spectra easily. During the lighting devices development, it is convenient to use mathematical approximations of the spectral distributions of the used LEDs in the composition of the product to calculate the final spectrum of the device in the visible range. These calculation methods are particularly interesting in architectural lighting. They are also applicable to the development of modern LED greenhouse irradiators. The article considers two main methods for approximating the emission spectra of colour LEDs: via symmetric and asymmetric distribution. The spectral distributions of four main types of LEDs that are used in the lighting devices design based on colour LEDs were measured in a wide range of currents from 100 mA to 1000 mA: red, amber, green, and blue. The results were also compared with a model that considers the two-dimensional density of states and potential fluctuations in the active region of the heterostructure of LED. Based on the carried-out measurements and calculations, the optimal approximation method via the asymmetric spectral distribution of LED radiation was determined.

Design of 98.8% Efficient 400-to-48-V $LLC$ Converter With Optimized Matrix Transformer and Matrix Inductor

Data centers have seen a rapid increase in power consumption in recent years, and the 48 V power architecture has gained popularity due to its efficiency. However, the cost of efficient power supplies remains challenging due to their complicated magnetic designs. The search for efficient and cost-effective power supplies continues. This paper focuses on the implementation of the DC-DC stage of the power supply unit for the 48 V data center bus architecture. In this paper, we present a design process for a high-efficiency, high-power-density 3 kW 400 V to 48 V LLC converter for use in data centers. Through optimization of the matrix transformer's geometry, turn number, and resonant frequency, we achieve superior efficiency and power density compared to state-of-the-art designs. To address challenges with the printed circuit board PCB-based inductors, we propose the use of a resonant matrix inductor, which reduces the number of stacked PCB layers, simplifies the winding implementation, and lowers the AC loss. By integrating the matrix inductor with the matrix transformer, we create a modular and scalable magnetic structure suitable for a wide range of voltages and currents. We also introduce EMI shielding for the matrix transformer with a full-bridge rectifier, resulting in an 18 dB reduction in common-mode noise. The prototype achieved a peak efficiency of 98.8% and a power density of 600 W/in <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$^{3}$</tex-math></inline-formula> , demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed design.

High-rate and selective conversion of CO2 from aqueous solutions to hydrocarbons

Electrochemical carbon dioxide (CO2) conversion to hydrocarbon fuels, such as methane (CH4), offers a promising solution for the long-term and large-scale storage of renewable electricity. To enable this technology, CO2-to-CH4 conversion must achieve high selectivity and energy efficiency at high currents. Here, we report an electrochemical conversion system that features proton-bicarbonate-CO2 mass transport management coupled with an in-situ copper (Cu) activation strategy to achieve high CH4 selectivity at high currents. We find that open matrix Cu electrodes sustain sufficient local CO2 concentration by combining both dissolved CO2 and in-situ generated CO2 from the bicarbonate. In-situ Cu activation through alternating current operation renders and maintains the catalyst highly selective towards CH4. The combination of these strategies leads to CH4 Faradaic efficiencies of over 70% in a wide current density range (100 – 750 mA cm-2) that is stable for at least 12 h at a current density of 500 mA cm-2. The system also delivers a CH4 concentration of 23.5% in the gas product stream.

Directing High-Efficiency Na Plating with Carbon–Aluminum Junction Interfaces for Anode-Free Na Metal Batteries

Anode-free sodium metal batteries are highly promising for future energy storage but suffer from much faster cycling degradation as they are sensitive to even trace levels of irreversible side reactions. This work focuses on the most practical Al foil current collectors and systematically examined the effect of nanosized carbon coating on improving the Na plating and stripping stability. We identified that the carbon–Al junction interface generated by carbon coating enabled more uniform Na deposition with lower overpotentials, delivering higher than 99.8% Faradaic efficiencies for a wide range of cycling currents between 0.5 and 3.0 mA cm–2. This performance is much better than the 96.4% efficiency observed on uncoated Al foils under the same conditions and is also confirmed under lean electrolyte and freezing electrolyte conditions and can be attributed to the stronger interfacial binding and enhanced sodiophilic properties of the carbon–aluminum junction sites. These sites not only ensure uniform Na plating but also eliminates side reactions that would otherwise cause electrolyte depletion. As a result, Na-metal free full cells assembled with a high capacity Na3V2(PO4)3 cathode delivered ∼93% capacity retention for 100 cycles, higher than the ∼42% of retention of uncoated Al foil.