Wide Range Achievement Test Reading Research Articles

In utero aspirin exposure and child neurocognitive development: A propensity score-matched analysis.

To evaluate the association between a short-period, high-dose in utero aspirin exposure and child neurocognitive development. A propensity score-matched analysis of a multicentre prospective cohort study. The US Collaborative Perinatal Project (1959-1976). A total of 50 565 singleton live births with maternal information. We performed a propensity score matching to balance maternal characteristics between women with and without aspirin exposure. Inverse probability-weighted marginal structural models were used to estimate associations between aspirin exposure and child neurocognitive assessments. Child neurocognitive development was assessed using the Bayley Scales at 8 months, the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale at 4 years, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale and Wide-Range Achievement Test (WRAT) at 7 years. Children exposed to aspirin in utero were associated with an 8%-16% reduced risk of having suspect/abnormal or below-average scores in most neurocognitive assessments. A trend of lower risks of having suspect/abnormal or below-average scores was further observed in children with in utero aspirin exposure for more than 7 days, particularly on Bayley Mental (relative risk [RR] 0.82, 95% CI 0.74-0.92), WRAT Reading (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.78-0.98) and WRAT Arithmetic tests (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.66-0.86). This association was mainly observed in the second trimester of pregnancy. In utero aspirin exposure was associated with improved child neurocognitive development in a prospective cohort study. Further studies are warranted to evaluate the impact of long-period and low-dose in utero aspirin exposure on child short- and long-term neurodevelopment.

Establishing a relationship between semantic clustering and language performance

AbstractBackgroundSemantic clustering (SC) is an implicit learning strategy commonly utilized on verbal list‐learning tasks. While research has examined SC and executive functioning and memory, little has been done relating SC and language. In the present study, we calculated a SC score on a common list‐learning task and explored relationships with language performance. We predicted weaker SC in individuals with MCI compared cognitively normal individuals, which could potentially be used as an additional measure to help identify MCI and Alzheimer’s disease.MethodArchival test data from an outpatient neurology clinic were extracted (N=355), including the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised, Boston Naming Test, WAIS‐IV Similarities, D‐KEFS Verbal Fluency Letter Fluency (FAS) and Category Fluency (CF) tests, and Wide Range Achievement Test‐Reading (WRAT). Diagnostic subgroups of MCI and CN were created using actuarial diagnostic criteria. SC was calculated as the sum of novel consecutive recalls belonging to the same category, without repeats or semantically‐related intrusions. A chi‐square test was conducted to assess differences between demographic factors. ANCOVA was used to compare performance of SC and selected language measures between the MCI and CN groups using age and WRAT‐Reading as covariates; SC and language measure raw scores were treated as dependent variables and diagnostic grouping as the independent variable.ResultDifferences in age(X2 =36.39,p<0.01), education(X2 =21.44,p<0.05), and WRAT‐Reading SS(X2 =45.43,p<0.01) were found. ANOVA found significant differences between the groups’ SC scores, as well as performance on language measures (p<0.05). The CN group showed a trend of being stronger than the MCI group across all measures, including SC. Generally, language measures were significantly positively correlated with SC scores for both groups (p<0.05), including BNT and CF, and FAS for the CN group.ConclusionOverall, findings support our hypothesis that both SC and language scores vary as a function of clinical diagnosis with the CN group having stronger abilities than those with MCI. As such, SC scores derived from verbal learning tests may be able to contribute to knowledge of one’s language skills. Further research should aim to help establish this relationship. SC scores could assist in screening for MCI or cognitive deficiencies resulting from AD.

Impact of duration of untreated psychosis and premorbid intelligence on cognitive functioning in patients with first-episode schizophrenia

BackgroundThe neurotoxic hypothesis suggests that psychosis is toxic to the brain leading to clinical consequences. In this study, we hypothesized that a longer duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) in first episode schizophrenia (FES) patients is associated with poorer cognitive functioning, and that higher premorbid intelligence buffers against DUP-related cognitive impairment. MethodEighty-one FES patients completed a neuropsychological battery, the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia (BACS). Composite scores of the BACS, which were normalized to a matched healthy control of seventy-three subjects, were used as an index of general cognition. A median split using the Wide Range Achievement Test–Reading Test scores was used to divide the patients into low versus high premorbid IQ groups. Hierarchical linear regression was performed to examine predictors of general cognition, including DUP. ResultsLonger DUP was found to be a significant predictor of poorer general cognition. In addition, DUP predicted general cognition in the low premorbid IQ group but not in the high premorbid IQ group. ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate that longer DUP in FES patients is associated with worse cognitive scores, and that this association is more pronounced in a subgroup of patients who have lower premorbid intelligence. Our results suggest the importance of earlier identification and management of patients with low premorbid IQ, given that their cognition may be more vulnerable to the toxicity of psychosis.

APOE and mild cognitive impairment: the Framingham Heart Study.

The risk apolipoprotein E-4 (APOE4) poses for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) may vary based on the neuropsychological definition of MCI. A community-based cohort study. Using two psychometric neuropsychological impairment definitions, we examined APOE4 and prevalent MCI among older adults or pre-MCI among middle-aged adults. Neuropsychological, clinical and genetic data were collected on 2,239 Framingham Offspring Cohort participants free from clinical stroke or dementia (62±9 years; 54% women). Prevalent amnestic MCI was defined from neuropsychological performances≥1.5 SD below the mean based on (i) age and education or (ii) age and Wide Range Achievement Test-3 Reading (WRAT-3 Reading) performance adjustment. In the entire sample, multivariable-adjusted logistic regressions found that APOE4 was associated with amnestic MCI when using the age and WRAT Reading definition (odds ratio [OR]=1.7, P=0.002) but not the age and education definition (OR=1.0, P=0.90). Results were modified by age, such that APOE4 was associated with amnestic MCI in participants≥65 years using both the age and WRAT Reading definition (OR=2.4, P<0.001) and the age and education definition (OR=1.7, P=0.04). APOE4 risk for prevalent amnestic MCI varies depending on the definition of objective neuropsychological impairment for MCI. Our findings support existing literature emphasising the need to refine MCI neuropsychological profiling methods.

Defining MCI in the Framingham Heart Study Offspring

Psychometric definitions of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) typically use cut-off levels set at 1.5 SDs below age-adjusted and education-adjusted norms, assuming that the education adjustment accounts for premorbid abilities. However, noncognitive factors impact educational attainment, potentially leading to incorrect categorization as MCI. We examined whether using an adjustment based on reading performance [Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) Reading] improved MCI diagnostic accuracy. A total of 935 Framingham Offspring (mean age, 72±5 y) underwent tests of memory, executive function, abstraction, language, and visuospatial function as part of a neuropsychological test battery. Domain-specific test scores were regressed onto age and WRAT score, or education, to define MCI. Survival analyses were used to relate baseline MCI to incident dementia. The 2 MCI definitions differed most for the lowest and highest education groups. The WRAT definition was more strongly associated with incident dementia for all 5 tests. MCI level abstraction performance was associated with incident dementia using the WRAT definition (HR=3.20, P=0.033), but not the education definition (HR=1.19, P=0.814). The WRAT should be considered along with the standard measure of years of education, as it may be a better surrogate marker of premorbid abilities.

Adaptive behavior and later school achievement in children with early‐onset epilepsy

To determine whether early measures of adaptive behavior are predictive of later school difficulties and achievement in otherwise neurotypical (unimpaired) children with onset of epilepsy during the preschool years. In a prospective cohort study, parents completed the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) for children who were aged 5 years or less at epilepsy diagnosis. Eight to 9 years later, the children were assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC), the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT), and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Associations of VABS scores with later WRAT and CBCL scores were tested. A total of 108 neurotypical children (64 males, 44 females; mean age at testing 11 y 11 mo, SD 2 y) were studied. After adjustment for IQ and other factors, there was an increase of 0.15 points (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.03-0.27 points; p=0.03) and 0.14 points (95% CI 0.0-0.28 points; p=0.05) in WRAT reading and spelling scores for each 1-point increment in the VABS communication score. Corresponding numbers for the VABS socialization score were 0.20 (95% CI 0.08-0.32; p=0.005) and 0.17 (95% CI 0.05-0.29; p=0.005). In neurotypical preschool children with epilepsy, early social and communication scores predict later school performance. These findings raise questions about opportunities for early identification and intervention for children at greatest risk.

Factors Associated With African American and White Elders' Participation in a Brain Donation Program

This study examined factors associated with brain donation program participation among African American and White elders. By postal mail, participants were recruited from an Alzheimer's research registry (all of whom had been invited to participate in the Center's brain donation program) and asked to complete surveys assessing brain donation knowledge, trust in healthcare systems, and religiousness. African American respondents completed a cultural mistrust inventory. Demographic, brain donation status, and literacy data (as assessed by the Wide Range Achievement Test-3 Reading subtest) were compiled from the respondents' most recent registry visit. The survey response rate was 60% (n=184 White and n=49 Black respondents). Logistic regression, comparing religiousness, trust in healthcare institutions, and educational attainment, identified a single predictor (ie, religiousness) in the prediction of donation status among White respondents (P=0.008), whereas no predictors were observed for donation status among the Black respondents. Using all African American donors and nondonors from the registry (n=68), comparisons revealed Wide Range Achievement Test-3 Reading score differences for African American donors (46.8±5.9) and nondonors (42.8±8.4, P=0.02). Results suggest that increased religiousness is related to White elders' decisions not to donate, whereas lower reading ability might be related to African American participants' decisions not to donate.

Child Abuse and Neglect and Cognitive Function at 14 Years of Age: Findings From a Birth Cohort

To examine the association between child maltreatment (abuse and neglect) and long-term cognitive outcomes within a prospective birth cohort. A birth cohort of 7223 children was recruited. Independent reports of suspected child maltreatment were confidentially linked to the longitudinal study database. The principal predictor variable was notification to the state child-protection authority for suspected maltreatment (abuse, neglect, or both). The outcome variables were scores on the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) reading test and Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM), completed at 14 years of age. Multivariate regression analysis was used to adjust for potential confounders. A total of 3796 subjects completed either the WRAT or RSPM. There was a higher loss to follow-up among children who had been reported to the state as suspected victims of maltreatment. After controlling for a range of possible confounders and modifiers, notification to the state for child maltreatment (abuse, neglect, or both) was associated with a lower score on both the WRAT (mean difference: -4.4 when the SD is 15 [95% confidence interval: -6.3 to -2.5]) and RSPM (mean difference: -4.8 when the SD is 15 [95% confidence interval: -6.7 to -2.9]). Both reported abuse and neglect were independently associated with lower reading ability and perceptual reasoning. Both child abuse and child neglect are independently associated with impaired cognition and academic functioning in adolescence. These findings suggest that both abuse and neglect have independent and important adverse effects on a child's cognitive development.

Estimating premorbid functioning in huntington's disease: the relationship between disease progression and the wide range achievement test reading subtest.

The estimation of premorbid abilities is an essential part of a neuropsychological evaluation, especially in neurodegenerative conditions. Although word pronunciation tests are one standard method for estimating the premorbid level, research suggests that these tests may not be valid in neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, the current study sought to examine two estimates of premorbid intellect, the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) Reading subtest and the Barona formula, in 93 patients with mild to moderate Huntington's disease (HD) to determine their utility and to investigate how these measures relate to signs and symptoms of disease progression. In 89% of participants, WRAT estimates were below the Barona estimates. WRAT estimates were related to worsening memory and motor functioning, whereas the Barona estimates had weaker relationships. Neither estimate was related to depression or functional capacity. Irregular wordreading tests appear to decline with HD progression, whereas estimation methods based on demographic factors may be more robust but overestimate premorbid functioning.

The antecedents of non‐affective psychosis in a birth‐cohort, with a focus on measures related to cognitive ability, attentional dysfunction and speech problems

Adults with non-affective psychosis show subtle deviations in a range of developmental trajectories as children and adolescents. Based on a birth-cohort (n = 3801), we examined the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPTV) at age 5, and Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) and Wide Range Achievement Test reading scale (WRAT-R) at age 14. Items related to speech problems and attentional dysfunction were available from maternal- or self-report. At age 21, we identified 60 cohort members who were screen-positive for non-affective psychosis (SP-NAP). Impaired performance on the PPVT and RSPM (but not WRAT-R) predicted SP-NAP for males only. Male cohort members in the highest quartile for attentional dysfunction at ages 5 and 14 were about 5-8 times more likely to develop SP-NAP. SP-NAP in males was significantly associated with speech problems at age 14. Males who develop non-affective psychoses have subtle impairments in cognitive capacity prior to the development of their psychotic disorder.

Pre- and Post-Electroconvulsive Therapy Multidomain Cognitive Assessment in Psychotic Depression

Cognitive changes have been reported in patients after electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), but few studies have investigated post-ECT changes across multiple cognitive domains. Because cognitive dysfunction is presumed to be more salient in psychotic depression, we propose a brief pre-ECT multidomain cognitive assessment battery, assessing neurocognitive function in this population before and after ECT. We also compared performance to estimated premorbid levels and determined if neuropsychological functioning was related to symptom improvement. Twenty participants with psychotic depression (12 females, 8 males) undergoing ECT for severe depression received the repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status (RBANS) and additional tasks. The wide range achievement test reading test provided an estimate of premorbid intellectual functioning. Depressive symptoms were assessed with the Hamilton Depression Scale-28, whereas negative and positive symptoms were assessed with the Scale for Assessing Negative and Positive Symptoms. There was a significant improvement in depressive symptoms with most measures of cognitive function showing net gains. When cognitive performances were compared with estimated premorbid abilities, findings indicated significant movement toward normalization in overall RBANS score, particularly involving the language index and attention index. Considered individually, 6 (30%) participants showed pre-ECT cognitive dysfunction (RBANS total score <or=80), with only 2 (10%) showing such impairment posttreatment associated with inadequate response to ECT. A linear regression analysis revealed that the changes in RBANS and executive functioning were directly related to change in negative symptoms, but not to change in depression, anxiety or psychotic symptoms. Multidomain pre-ECT cognitive assessment is feasible and well-tolerated in most patients. Cognitive performance did not worsen after ECT in people with psychotic depression and improved on some measures. The degree of cognitive improvement seems to be directly related to the improvement in negative symptoms.

Relationship of the Brief UCSD Performance‐based Skills Assessment (UPSA‐B) to multiple indicators of functioning in people with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder

This study assessed the relationship between multiple indicators of 'real-world' functioning and scores on a brief performance-based measure of functional capacity known as the Brief University of California San Diego (UCSD) Performance-based Skills Assessment (UPSA-B) in a sample of 205 patients with either serious bipolar disorder (n = 89) or schizophrenia (n = 116). Participants were administered the UPSA-B and assessed on the following functional domains: (i) independent living status (e.g., residing independently as head of household, living in residential care facility); (ii) informant reports of functioning (e.g., work skills, daily living skills); (iii) educational attainment and estimated premorbid IQ as measured by years of education and Wide Range Achievement Test reading scores, respectively; and (iv) employment. Better scores on the UPSA-B were associated with greater residential independence after controlling for age, diagnosis, and symptoms of psychopathology. Among both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia patients, higher UPSA-B scores were significantly related to better informant reports of functioning in daily living skills and work skills domains. Greater estimated premorbid IQ was associated with higher scores on the UPSA-B for both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder participants. Participants who were employed scored higher on the UPSA-B when controlling for age and diagnosis, but not when controlling for symptoms of psychopathology. These data suggest the UPSA-B may be useful for assessing capacity for functioning in a number of domains in both people diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Test–retest stability on the WRAT-3 reading subtest in geriatric cognitive evaluations

The primary goal of this study was to establish the stability of the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-3) Reading score across two annual assessments of aging individuals. Participants were classified as controls (n = 200), mild cognitive impairment (MCI; n = 137), or possible or probable Alzheimer's disease (AD; n = 41). Test–retest stability was acceptable to high for all diagnostic groups. The descriptive classification (e.g., “average”) remained consistent for only 74% of participants. Results indicated that WRAT-3 Reading scores are appropriate for use with older adults, though the use of categorical descriptors to describe premorbid ability based on these scores is not supported.

Effects of sex and APOE ε4 on object recognition and spatial navigation in the elderly

To determine effects of APOE ε4 (ε4) on cognitive performance of healthy elderly, 116 nondemented elders (mean age 81 years) were cognitive tested. The established tests Faces, Family Pictures, Spatial Span Forward and Backward, and the object recognition and spatial navigation tests developed in our laboratory were used as cognitive tests. Salivary samples were collected to determine APOE genotype and salivary testosterone and cortisol levels. Non-ε4- and ε4-carrying men and women did not differ in age, Mini-Mental State Examination, Wide Range Achievement Test-Reading, Beck Anxiety Inventory, or reaction time scores. There was an effect of ε4 on the object recognition and spatial navigation tests, with non-ε4 carriers outperforming ε4 carriers, but not in the other cognitive tests. No relationship was found for sex and ε4 status or sex and performance during the hidden session of Memory Island. In men, salivary cortisol levels correlated with object recognition. These results show that object recognition and spatial navigation tests are useful to assess cognitive function in the elderly.

Cognitive Reserve and the Relationship Between Depressive Symptoms and Awareness of Deficits in Dementia

Cognitive Reserve and the Relationship Between Depressive Symptoms and Awareness of Deficits in Dementia

Normative Data for the Selective Reminding Test: A Random Digit Dialing Sample

Healthy control participants (46 women, M age=44.3 yr., SD=7.6; 29 men) were recruited to undergo a comprehensive neuropsychological battery and serve as a comparison group in a study of cognitive functioning in patients with Lyme isease. Participants were selected using Mitofsky-Waksberg random digit dialing. The Buschke 12-word, six-trial Selective Reminding Test was administered as part of the neuropsychological battery and normative data are presented stratified by age and sex. Performance on alternate forms of this measure were examined. Mean education, intelligence quotient, and Wide Range Achievement Test-3 Reading scores are reported.

The WRAT-3 Reading Subtest as a Measure of Premorbid Intelligence Among Persons With Brain Injury.

Objective: To examine whether the Wide Range Achievement Test–3 (WRAT-3) Reading subtest (S. Jastak & G. S. Wilkenson, 1984; G. S. Wilkinson, 1993) measures premorbid intelligence in persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Participants: Sixty individuals (63% male, 78% Caucasian, mean age 38 years) tested during acute rehabilitation hospitalization following TBI and 1 year later. Results: Slight (4.4 points) increase in WRAT-3 Reading scores was observed but with greater, although nonsignificant (p .12), increase for those with greater injury severity. Conclusions: The WRAT-3 Reading subtest is a better hold test for individuals who sustain mild TBI.

A Computer-based Reading Test for Use as an Index of Premorbid General Intellectual Level in North American English-speaking Adults

Brief tests of vocabulary or reading ability are often used as an index of general intellectual level to hypothesize deficits in patients, to establish comparability of comparison groups, and as a covariate of performance on other neuropsychological tests. We evaluated a new variant of a reading test for potential use in estimating premorbid general intellectual ability and implementation as a computerized-adaptive test. A total of 319 outpatients who participated in an epilepsy self-management study were tested on three occasions, completing the Wide-Range Achievement Test-3 (WRAT-3) Reading test at baseline and the NES3 Adult Reading Test (ART) at the 3-month follow-up. At the 6-month follow-up, some participants completed the ART and some the NES2 Vocabulary test. ART and WRAT-3 Reading scores obtained 3 months apart were highly correlated ( r=0.87, n=179), while ART and NES2 Vocabulary scores were somewhat less correlated ( r=0.80, n=61). The ART test–retest correlation was high ( r=0.95, n=79). The ART distribution was spread out more evenly at the high end than that of the WRAT-3 Reading. ART score was significantly related to education, race, income, and examiner category, but was unrelated to age category and depression status. Non-significant gender differences were observed. An item-response theory (Rasch model) analysis showed good fit of the model to the observed data and yielded an improved ranking of the ART items in order of difficulty. The NES3 ART exhibited high reliability and strong association with WRAT-3 Reading. These results suggest that the NES3-ART may be useful as an index of general intellectual ability for comparison of groups and for use as a covariate in data analyses among English-speaking, North American adults. The Rasch model analysis provides a basis for implementing the ART as a computerized-adaptive test, which should improve its time efficiency and reduce participant burden in taking the test.

Temporal processing ability in above average and average readers.

In the present study, we compared the rapid visual and auditory temporal processing ability of above average and average readers. One hundred five undergraduates participated in various visual and auditory temporal tasks. The above average readers exhibited lower auditory and visual temporal resolution thresholds than did the average readers, but only the differences in the auditory tasks were statistically significant, especially when nonverbal IQ was controlled for. Furthermore, both the correlation and stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed a relationship between the auditory measures and the wide range achievement test (WRAT) reading measure and a relationship between the auditory measures and a low spatial frequency visual measure and the WRAT spelling measure. Discriminant analysis showed that together both the visual and auditory measures correctly classified 75% of the subjects into above average and average reading groups, respectively. The results suggest that differences in temporal processing ability in relation to differences in reading proficiency are not confined to the comparison between poor and normal readers.

Congruence between education and reading levels of older persons.

The educational levels of 57 middle-aged and elderly persons were compared with their reading levels as assessed by the Wide Range Achievement Test-Reading. Participants were recruited from mental health and community settings in a predominantly black community. Thirty-six participants (63 percent) were reading at a median of five years below their educational level. Forms used in the settings were written at a level above the reading ability of most participants. Results suggest that older persons may have difficulty comprehending written instructions for medications and diets and that such materials should be written at lower than an eighth-grade level.