Whitewater Kayaking Research Articles

The power of nature (sports)? From anthropocentrism to ecocentrism

ABSTRACT Nature sports include pursuits such as paragliding, white-water kayaking, free diving, mountaineering, and surfing. Participants in nature sports interact with geographical features (e.g. mountains, rivers, oceans, snow fields, ice sheets, caves, rock faces) as well as the dynamic forces that produce them (e.g. gravity, waves, thermal currents, flowing water, wind, rain, sun). In this article, I engage a representational approach to analyze how participants in nature sports interact with nature. Anthropocentric representations privilege participants’ interests, wants, desires, and ends; they typically refer to claims of conquest/achievement in nature, or praise nature for its therapeutic qualities. In contradistinction, ecocentric representations recognize humankind as one entity in an interdependent world that comprises all living organisms and the geological processes and geomorphological features that sustain them. Ecocentric representations of nature sports highlight networks of participants and landforms that help preserve a balance between people and the environment. Yet, notwithstanding the allure of ecocentric representations, especially in the wake of evidence that human-induced greenhouse gases are predisposing environmental calamities, there is a substantial gap between the ontological concepts and categories of ecocentrism and lived sporting experiences and practices in nature.

Evaluating a Model of Flow and Clutch Optimal Psychological States in Adventure Recreation

Adventure recreation is a growing form of leisure associated with optimal psychological states reported to involve intensely pleasant emotions, optimal functioning, and a sense of achievement or fulfillment. However, much of the research on this topic has primarily focused on singular optimal state models (e.g. flow, peak experience), which have often been developed and refined in traditional sport contexts. This study investigated the potential utility of a multiple optimal state model (i.e. flow and clutch) for understanding optimal psychological states experienced across a range of adventure recreation activities (e.g. rockclimbing, snowboarding, white-water kayaking). Data were collected with 20 participants (mean age = 35.7 years, SD = 10.7) via the Scanlan Collaborative Interview Method. While flow and clutch states were reported to both involve an immersive, present moment focus, flow states were characterized by expanded attentional focus, connection to nature, effortlessness, and intuitive, pleasurable movements, whereas clutch states were characterized by a narrow focus on achieving a difficult outcome and deliberate thinking about bodily movements, followed by a sense of achievement. The findings are used to propose an expanded model of flow and clutch states that identifies the unique antecedents, characteristics, and consequences of flow and clutch optimal states in adventure recreation contexts.

Whitewater Helmet STAR: Evaluation of the Biomechanical Performance and Risk of Head Injury for Whitewater Helmets.

More than six million people participate in whitewater kayaking and rafting in the United States each year. Unfortunately, with these six million whitewater participants come 50 deaths annually, making it one of the highest fatality rates of all sports. As the popularity in whitewater activities grows, the number of injuries, including concussions, also increases. The objective of this study was to create a new rating system for whitewater helmets by evaluating the biomechanical performance and risk of head injury of whitewater helmets using the Summation of Tests for the Analysis of Risk (STAR) system. All watersport helmets that passed the EN: 1385: 2012 standard and that were clearly marketed for whitewater use were selected for this study. Two samples of each helmet model were tested on a custom pendulum impactor under conditions known to be associated with the highest risk of head injury and death. A 50th percentile male NOCSAE headform instrumented with three linear accelerometers and a triaxial angular rate sensor coupled with a Hybrid III 50th percentile neck were used for data collection. A total of 126 tests were performed using six different configurations. These included impacts to the front, side, and rear using two speeds of 3.1 and 4.9m/s that modeled whitewater river flow rates. Each helmet's STAR score was calculated using the combination of exposure and injury risk that was determined from the linear and rotational head accelerations. The resulting head impact accelerations predicted a very high risk of concussion for all impact locations at the 4.9m/s speed. The STAR score varied between helmets indicating that some helmets provide better protection than others. Overall, these results show a clear need for improvement in whitewater helmets, and the methodologies developed in this research project should provide manufacturers a design tool for improving these products.

Richard Matthew Dodds

<h3>Objective</h3> In this study, the presence and severity of external auditory canal exostoses (EACE) in a group of white water kayakers related to the duration and intensity of kayaking and...

Poster 161: Consequence Athletes with Anterior Shoulder Instability: Consider Latarjet

Objectives:The Latarjet procedure has been shown to be effective in treating recurrent shoulder instability, especially in the setting of glenoid bone loss and after failed previous Bankart repair. Several studies have additionally shown a significant reduction in recurrent instability rates when compared to Bankart repair in contact athletes when the Latarjet procedure is performed in a primary setting. We have identified an additional population of patients that provides greater challenges beyond the common athlete including those involved in contact sports. Termed “consequence athletes,” these patients are defined as athletes who perform in high risk, uncontrolled environments for whom an injury is likely to threaten life or livelihood. This population includes elite military forces, law enforcement and federal agents, motocross, elite skiers/snowboarders, whitewater kayak and rafters, and rock climbers. The purpose of this study is to evaluate minimum 2-year outcomes of primary Latarjet procedure in consequence athletes with anterior shoulder instability.Methods:Consequence athletes who underwent open Latarjet by one of the three sports medicine trained senior surgeons between August 2006 and January 2018 were retrospectively reviewed from prospectively collected data. Minimum 24 follow up was obtained on all patients. Those younger than 18 at follow up, history of concomitant or prior remplissage procedure, glenoid reconstruction with allograft, severe glenohumeral arthritis, or hyperlaxity were excluded. Glenoid bone loss (GBL) was evaluated on preoperative MRI and the cohort divided into GBL 0-14% and ≥15%. Patient-reported outcome scores (PROs) were collected and included the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score, Single Numeric Assessment Evaluation (SANE) score, Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDASH) score, Short Form–12 (SF-12) Physical Component Summary (PCS), and numeric rating scale (NRS) for pain score (0 - 10, 10 = worst pain). Postoperative patient satisfaction (1 - 10, 10 = very satisfied) was evaluated. Complications and revision surgeries were recorded. Failure was defined as a postoperative dislocation or a revision surgery.Results:Sixty-five consequence athletes were included (54 males, 11 females). The mean age at surgery was 28.5 ± 8.7 years (range 15.8-56.4). The most frequent professions included 17 skiers (26.2%), 17 rock climbers (26.2%), 10 snowboarders (15.4%), 9 white water kayakers/rafters (13.8%), and 8 federal agents/military (12.3%). Primary latarjet was performed in 30 (46.2%) without prior history of soft tissue stabilization procedures. Mean GBL was 13.7%; 27 (41.5%) had 0-14% GBL and 32 (49.2%) had ≥15% GBL. Significant improvement in PROs at minimum 2-year follow was demonstrated for SANE (57.9 ± 24.5 to 91.0 ± 9.5), SF12 PCS (45.5 ± 8.7 to 54.4 ± 7.1), ASES pain (41.5 ± 9.7 to 47.4 ± 5.3), ASES function (31.8 ± 12.6 to 46.2 ± 6.8), ASES total (73.0 ± 19.8 to 93.7 ± 10.0), and quickDASH (27.0 ± 14.0 to 10.0 ± 28.8). Median patient satisfaction was 10. One patient sustained a recurrent dislocation (1.5%), 2 (3%) patients underwent revision surgery. There was no significant correlation between PROs and GBL, number of previous dislocations, or prior soft tissue stabilization procedures.Conclusions:The latarjet procedure a reliable and safe treatment for shoulder instability in the high demand “consequence athlete” population with a post-operative dislocation rate of 1.5% and revision rate of 3%. Significant improvement in PROs was demonstrated for SANE, SF12 PCS, ASES, and DASH with median patient satisfaction score of 10. These findings support treatment of this population with the latarjet procedure, even in the setting of minimal preoperative GBL, where a recurrent instability event could be catastrophic to the individual patient or those working or participating along with them.

Adventure-based mindsets helped maintain psychological well-being during COVID-19

ObjectivesResearch conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic underscores the value of physical activity and nature for psychological well-being in the general population when people’s mobility and activities are restricted due to government mandates. Since restrictions may thwart the psychological benefits reported from participation in adventure recreation (e.g., rock-climbing, white-water kayaking), it is important to understand the psychological well-being of people who previously benefited from adventure opportunities. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the lived experiences and psychological well-being of adventure recreation participants during COVID-19 restrictions. DesignA descriptive phenomenological approach was used. MethodParticipants were fifteen men, four women, and one non-binary person who engaged in a variety of adventure recreation activities that included ski-mountaineering, free-diving, rock-climbing, white-water kayaking, back-country skiing, skydiving, SCUBA diving, BASE jumping, and mountaineering. Participants had an average of 11.7 years of experience in at least one of their preferred adventure recreation activities. Participants were invited to take part in a visual and audio-recorded semi-structured interview on Zoom. Interviews lasted on average 69.3 min. Reflexive thematic analysis was undertaken inductively. ResultsOverall, participants discussed a range of nuanced impacts that COVID-19 restrictions had on their psychological well-being. Participants discussed how negative affect resulted from restricted opportunities for physical and mental challenges, emotion regulation, connections to nature and people, and excitement. However, participants also benefited from several silver linings, such as reflecting on past adventures, a reduced need to compare themselves socially, and opportunities to spend quality time with others. Participants also explained how ‘adventure-based mindsets’ (e.g., resilience, focusing on controllable elements, humility) were protective strategies they used to limit the ill-being impacts of COVID-19 restrictions. ConclusionsThis study extends the alternative sport and exercise literature by illustrating how participation in adventure has the potential to enhance participants’ resilience and their ability to maintain psychological well-being across diverse and novel contexts (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic).

Human Health and Outdoor Adventure Recreation: Perceived Health Outcomes

Forests and similar types of landscapes offer a myriad of outcomes and benefits often associated with participation in outdoor adventure recreation (OAR) activities. Previous research has shown that OAR participants are able to identify, perceive, and accurately report the effects and benefits of their participation. The health benefits of outdoor experiences, both active and more passive, have received a growing research interest, both as a setting and as a setting/activity complex. Research has identified six primary forms of health and well-being from outdoor and forest-type landscapes, including emotional, environmental, intellectual, social, spiritual, and physical. The preponderance of research in the health and wellness field synthesizes these forms into two primary categories, physical/physiological and mental/psychological. This study considered the health outcomes attributed to highly active OAR participation using three popular OAR activities: mountain biking (MTB), rock climbing (RC) and whitewater paddling (WW; including whitewater kayaking, whitewater canoeing, and whitewater rafting). A survey presented in situ to OAR participants in various areas of the Midwestern and Southeastern United States yielded 288 respondents. Using health perceptions and outcomes instruments as well as semi-structured interviews, the researchers found health to be an important factor for OAR participation. These findings are congruent with previous research that suggest that OAR participants specifically recreate in forested and other natural areas for enhanced physical and psychological health outcomes. The findings in this study also support the efficacy of the participation in OAR activities toward supporting both health improvement and maintenance. With physical and psychological health continuing to be an area of concern in today’s world, this study suggests that participation in OAR on forested and similar landscapes can be a successful health intervention strategy.

Prevention of external auditory canal exostosis in the Colorado whitewater community.

External auditory canal exostoses (EACE) are bony formations that develop insidiously in the auditory meatus from chronic exposure to cold water and, in severe cases, require surgery. This condition has been understudied in the whitewater kayakers and not yet studied in the riverboarding population. Precautions such as earplugs are thought to prevent the formation of EACE because they mechanically block cold water from contacting the sensitive skin in the external auditory canal; however, earplugs are not commonly utilized by athletes. Inquiring about hobbies and the use of protective equipment can be done during osteopathic physicians' preventive care visits. This article aims to determine the prevalence of EACE in Colorado whitewater athletes and their attitudes about wearing ear protection before and after an educational intervention directed at increasing awareness and prevention of EACE. In July 2020, participants of this cross-sectional study completed a 10-min survey that collected demographics, whitewater experience, and perceptions of EACE, followed by an educational intervention. Participant ears were photographed utilizing a digital otoscope to assess EACE, and severity ratings were categorized into one of four occlusion levels: none (0%), mild (<25%), moderate (25-75%), or severe (>75%). Spearman correlation coefficientsand Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were utilized to assess changes in attitudes before and after the educational intervention. Eighty-one participants (mean [SD] age=36.3 [12.6] years, 25.9% female) completed the study: 74 kayakers and seven riverboarders. After the intervention, 60.5% (49/81) (p<0.001) reported greater understanding of EACE and 75.0% (60/80) were more likely to wear ear protection (p<0.001). Most (58.0%, 47/81) never wore ear protection. Of the 61 (75.0%) participants with at least one ear severity rating, most (55.7%, 34/61) had moderate EACE, 29.5% (18/61) had no to mild EACE, and 14.8% (9/61) had severe EACE (p<0.001). Impaired hearing was the biggest barrier to utilizing ear protection (51.6%, 33/64). Our results suggested that the educational intervention improved understanding of EACE and may increase utilization of ear protection in this population. Such prevention efforts may lead to better health of whitewater paddlers by reducing the incidence of EACE. Encouraging osteopathic physicians to inquire about hobbies and protective equipment during primary care preventive visits is essential to help keep athletes in the river doing what they love for longer, contributing to a healthier and happier whole person.

An Ecological Dynamics Approach to Understanding Human-Environment Interactions in the Adventure Sport Context-Implications for Research and Practice.

The last few decades have witnessed a surge of interest in adventure sports, and has led to an emerging research focus on these activities. However, recent conceptual analyses and scientific reviews have highlighted a major, fundamental question that remains unresolved: what constitutes an adventure sport. Despite several proposals for definitions, the field still seems to lack a shared conceptualization. This deficit may be a serious limitation for research and practice, restricting the development of a more nuanced theoretical explanation of participation and practical implications within and across adventure sports. In this article, we address another crucial question, how can adventure sports be better understood for research and practice? We briefly summarize previous definitions to address evident confusion and a lack of conceptual clarity in the discourse. Alternatively, we propose how an ecological perspective of human behaviors, such as interactions with the environment, may provide an appropriate conceptualization to guide and enhance future research and practice, using examples from activities such as freeride skiing/snowboarding, white-water kayaking, climbing, mountaineering and the fields of sport science, psychology and avalanche research and education. We draw on ecological dynamics as a transdisciplinary approach to discuss how this holistic framework presents a more detailed, nuanced, and precise understanding of adventure sports.

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OPINION Reactions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterWechatLinked InRedditEmail C&EN, 2022, 100 (3), p 3January 24, 2022Cite this:C&EN 100, 3, 3(Credit: C&EN/Shutterstock)Figure1of1Letters to the editorWhite-water sportsThis note has nothing to do with chemistry, but like any chemical reaction or finding, the accuracy of the information is important. I comment on the drawing appearing in the Dec. 6, 2021, issue of C&EN, both on page 3 under “Features” and in larger form on page 31 under Office Hours. The drawing is of a white-water kayak paddler about to enter a slalom gate. There are two errors in the drawing. First, one does not paddle through a pair of red poles in a downstream direction. The poles should be with green stripes. Red means an upstream gate. Secondly, the ends of the two poles are in the water. Rules state they must not be in contact with the water, approximately 20 cm from the water’s surface.Also, the author refers to white-water rafting in the article, but the image shows white-water kayaking. The paddler has a double-bladed paddle and therefore is paddling a kayak in the sitting position. White-water canoeing is done with the paddler in a kneeling position and using a single bladed paddle.David KurtzState College, PennsylvaniaEditor’s note: C&EN editors, not the author, chose the stock illustration for this article.Students as customersIn response to the letter to the editor in the Dec. 13/20, 2021, issue (page 7), I would respond to Ronald Hites with the following: You appear put out that your university asks students at the end of each semester to complete a survey on your ability to instruct in the specific subject matter and that the students are “customers.” Well, when someone pays for a service—such as for university education—you are a service provider, and that makes the person paying for your service a customer. Just like when you pay for the 15 min to see a physician. For the 15 min that the physician is with you (if you are lucky enough to garner 15 min), you are their customer. Frankly, I think it is long overdue to treat the service provider as being just that—a paid-for service provider. I wish I had been afforded the opportunity during my days in the university to rank some of my “service providers’ ” abilities. Many were brilliant in their fields but were lousy at teaching. Hopefully your university actually reads and reacts to the results of the survey to improve the overall quality of the “product” being sold.Francis WalkerTecumseh, Michigan

“… the thought that I could flip and die today made me feel anxious”: A study of the experienced emotions of novice white-water kayakers

Learning to white-water kayak often takes place in a stressful environment. This challenges participants’ experiences of the activity, causes emotional responses, and can affect their learning. The purpose of this study is to explore participants’ experienced emotions during an educational white-water kayaking programme. Fifty-eight outdoor students from New Zealand participated. The participants responded to a bespoke questionnaire exploring fleeting somatic arousal and emotion on five different occasions during a kayaking day. Participants’ emotions changed during the activity. Excitement was significantly higher than anxiety across the day. Anxiety was highest before starting the activity. No significant difference was found between the male and female participants’ emotions. A thematic analysis resulted in five themes describing the participants’ emotional experiences. Findings are discussed and related to theory and previous research. These findings present new insights regarding in-the-moment emotional perspectives during a white-water kayaking course for novices.

Calvin F. Quate (1923-2019).

Nanoscience pioneer who invented advanced microscopes

Active older adults in adventure education: how their experiences can influence outdoor adventure education program opportunities

ABSTRACTBy 2029, 20% of the U.S. population will be ≥65-years-old. American demographics are changing, understanding of the ≥65-year-old demographic has not. We investigated expectation variables of participants born between 1946 and 1964 in the United States, and identified how expectation trends have changed over time also describing gender differences. We used secondary data from a motivation study published in 2015 to identify the expectations of active older adults. Four years of data were used (n = 71) in a self-selection of four adventure activities (rock climbing, flat-water canoeing, white water kayaking and sea kayaking). Older adults expected experiences in the natural environment, with social factors, and where they were either starting a new activity, or honing acquired skills. They were not focused on danger or the use of personal gear. We recommend programming that caters to an aging population, as well as considerations for gender.

Comparing Three Approaches to Estimating Optimum White Water Kayak Flows in Western Norway

Background: Modern water management strategies aim to assess the impact of water regulation alternatives on all relevant ecosystem services, including white water (WW) recreation. Therefore it is important to estimate the optimum kayak flow range for river reaches that are potentially relevant for WW kayaking. Methods: We used the grade V run of the Teigdalselva River as an example and compared the results of three different approaches: (i) a hydro-morphological analysis of kayak runs using public data sources; (ii) a citizen science method that is based on photos and videos of kayak-activities on the web; and, (iii) interviews with elite kayakers. Results: For the hydro-morphological analysis, we found that some optimal flow ranges for WW kayak could be estimated based on empirical regional regression as a function of the natural mean flow and the geomorphic run type. The interviewed kayakers suggested a wider range of optimal flows, in particular, higher maxima. The test of the citizen science approach provided flows that ranged in the middle of the estimates made by the two other approaches for prescribing optimum kayak flow ranges. Conclusions: We recommend a combination of different methods for water management studies that are related to flow requirements for white water kayak. Estimations based on the empirical regression functions should be always complemented by at least one other approach.

Auditory exostosis: Exploring the daily life at an early sedentary population (Körtik Tepe, Turkey)

AbstractAuditory exostosis (AE) is a bony anomaly located on the tympanic portion of the temporal bone. Cold water, wind chill, and the effects of temperature are considered to be contributors to the development of AE. It is frequently encountered among surfers, lifeguards, whitewater kayakers, swimmers, and divers. Accordingly, there is a strong relationship between prolonged exposure to cold water and the frequency and grade of AE. For this reason, AE can be accepted as an occupational anomaly.In this study, AE from Körtik Tepe, Turkey, were analysed to understand the lifestyle of early hunter gatherer populations from Anatolia. One hundred twenty‐eight individuals and 174 temporal bones from Körtik Tepe were examined for the frequency and severity (graded) of AE. Forty‐five individuals (35.2%) have exostosis of various sizes. Half of 40 male individuals and 42.5% of females (n: 40) have AE with no statistically significant difference between the sexes. First observed in individuals 7 years of age, severity and frequency of AE increase with age. Besides increasing in frequency, the increase in size of AE suggest a continuous and prolonged exposure to cold water.The people of Körtik Tepe, which is surrounded by numerous freshwater sources, must have been subjected to cold water through activities such as bathing, cleaning, swimming, and playing in the water, as well as fishing. Our results suggest that the lifestyle of early sedentary people in Körtik Tepe was rather egalitarian with little or no gender differences and was closely connected to aquatic sources. Bioarchaeological data suggest that Körtik Tepe can be accepted as a community of hunter‐gatherer‐fishermen.

Deformation of an elastic capsule in a microfluidic T-junction: settling shape and moduli determination

Microdevices involving a stagnation-point flow, such as cross- and T-junctions, are useful for particle manipulation and characterization. In contrast to the wide use of cross-junctions, T-junctions have received limited attention as a medium for capsule deformation and characterization. In the present study, we investigate computationally the settling shape of an elastic capsule in a T-junction microchannel for a wide range of flow rates. Our work reveals that the capsules show a rich deformation behavior including (inverse) swallow-cap, sit-on and whitewater kayak shapes. We also propose a new methodology for the simultaneous and accurate determination of the shear and area-dilatation moduli of the membrane of artificial capsules via a single experimental technique by utilizing the dependence of the settling capsule’s dimensions on the capillary number and the membrane hardness identified in our investigation. Our moduli methodology utilizes high flow rates (i.e., large capsule deformations) where the effects of the membrane hardness become prominent and thus capsules with different area-dilatation modulus can be identified. Our procedure has the additional advantage of not being influenced by the fluids’ viscosity ratio or the membrane viscosity.

White water kayaking, positive affect, and perceived self-awareness: A case study of a veteran of the Vietnam era

Veterans from Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), and the Vietnam era have sustained multiple injuries and disabilities as a result of their service, including Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and depression. The use of outdoor recreation as a therapeutic modality for civilians with TBI has been found to correlate with greater self-awareness and positive affect, however, scarce literature exists regarding its use and outcomes for veterans. To explore this, a veteran from the Vietnam era reporting a history of depression who is involved with a white water kayaking group completed a series of surveys designed to measure its effect on perceived self-awareness and positive affect. The case study reported that involvement with the white water kayaking group improved his perceived self-awareness. The case study also reported the highest positive affect and lowest negative affect immediately after traveling down the river during a white water kayaking river trip. More research in this area is needed.

White Water Kayaking Risk: Malaysian Perspective

White water kayaking is the fun sport on fast moving water, typically call white water river. The element of fun and challenge has attracted many people to join this adventure sports in Malaysia. This study examined the risk in adventure sport tourism by white water kayakers in Malaysia. The objective of this study is to reveal the injuries suffered by whitewater kayakers during activity. This 2013 survey will be described using descriptive data only. The survey forms were distributed via kayak clubs and associations under the auspices of the Malaysian Canoe Association (MASCA). The survey asked respondents about their previous injuries during white water kayaking activities. All the data concerning to age, sex, experience and ability was collected from them. A total of 217 respondents provided feedback on this survey. Of the total 217, about 186 respondents experienced injuries during an activity, while the rest did not suffer any injuries while they were kayaking. The result showed only 41% seeks medical attention after injury. These whitewater kayaking activities require physical exertion as well as emotional and mental stability. Good practise and skill can help kayakers avoid injuries and accident during paddling session. This sport has been developing and growing each year. Future studies can also be done by looking for new discipline in white water which is “playboating” which may find different risk and injury.

The lower body muscle activation of intermediate to experienced kayakers when navigating white water

In white-water kayaking, the legs play a vital part in turning, stabilising and bracing actions. To date, there has been no reported information on neuromuscular activation of the legs in an authentic white-water environment. The aim of the current study was to identify lower body muscle activation, using ‘in-boat’ electromyography (EMG), whilst navigating a white-water run. Ten experienced male kayakers (age 31.5 ± 12.5 yr, intermediate to advanced experience) completed three successful runs of an international standard white-water course (grade 3 rapids), targeting right and left sides of the course, in a zigzag formation. Surface EMG (sEMG) outputs were generated, bilaterally, for the rectus femoris (RF), vastus lateralis, biceps femoris and gastrocnemius, expressed as a percentage of a dynamic maximal voluntary contraction (dMVC). Only RF showed significantly higher activation than any muscle on the left side of the body, and only on the left side of the course (P = .004; ETA2 = 0.56). Other results showed no significant difference between muscle activation in the right and left legs during each run, nor when assessed at either the right or left side of the course (P > .05). These findings indicate that contralateral symmetry in lower limb muscle activation is evident during white-water kayaking. This symmetry may provide a stable base to allow more asymmetrical upper body and trunk movements to be fully optimised. Lower body symmetry development should be considered useful in targeted training programmes for white-water kayakers.

Stability of motivations and risk attractiveness: The adventure recreation experience

Since 2009, participation rates for adventure recreation that involve elements of risk have increased over 25 per cent. Using the independent variables of gender, skill level and activity type, this study investigated the effect on reported motivations in a variety of adventure recreation activities over the period of 2000–2008. In addition, this study examined the stability of these motivations over a 6-year time period. With a sample size of 801, participants engaged in four different adventure activities (rock climbing, whitewater kayaking, sea kayaking and canoeing). Exploratory factor analysis generated four factors: Social, Escape, Sensation-Seeking and Self-Image. Furthermore, using ANOVA and confirmatory factor analysis procedures, differences in motives for participation were reported between males and females and different adventure activities. Over the time period of this study, the Social and Escape factors increased in importance, while the factor Self-Image decreased and Sensation-Seeking remained constant. The findings challenge the previously held assumption that motives for participation are similar across specific activities, gender and experience level.