White River Research Articles

"Latent factor structure of DSM–5 posttraumatic stress disorder: Evaluation of method variance and construct validity of novel symptom clusters": Correction to Lee et al. (2018).

Reports an error in "Latent factor structure of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder: Evaluation of method variance and construct validity of novel symptom clusters" by Daniel J. Lee, Michelle J. Bovin, Frank W. Weathers, Patrick A. Palmieri, Paula P. Schnurr, Denise M. Sloan, Terence M. Keane and Brian P. Marx (Psychological Assessment, Advanced Online Publication, Aug 16, 2018, np). In the article, the affiliations of multiple authors were incorrectly listed in the author byline and author note. For Daniel J. Lee, Michelle J. Bovin, Denise M. Sloan, Terence M. Keane, and Brian P. Marx, the affiliations should have read "National Center for PTSD, Boston, Massachusetts; VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts; and Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine." For author Paula P. Schnurr, the affiliations should have read "National Center for PTSD, White River Junction, Vermont; Department of Psychiatry, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth." All versions of this article have been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2018-39805-001.) The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) 4-factor model of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has demonstrated adequate fit in several confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) studies. Although several alternative measurement models have demonstrated better fit, there is no consensus yet on the best model, and newly proposed models lack sufficient construct validation. Notably, these studies have relied exclusively on questionnaire data, and thus their findings may be attributable to a method effect. This study examined the factor structure of DSM-5 PTSD symptoms using both questionnaire and interview data to determine the impact of assessment method on factor structure and construct validity of alternative model symptom clusters. Participants (N = 380) were veterans who completed the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013) and the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5; Weathers et al., 2013). Fit was similar across models. However, the seven-factor Hybrid model (Armour et al., 2015) fit best. Limited evidence of a method effect was observed. Results of construct validity analyses were mixed; some of the newly proposed symptom clusters demonstrated hypothesized differential associations with external correlates, but others did not. These findings suggest that results of previous DSM-5 PTSD CFAs supporting the Hybrid model are not attributable to a method effect. However, observed limited difference in model fit and mixed construct validity evidence raise concerns regarding the value of parsing DSM-5 symptom clusters. Constructs implied by the new factors in the more complex measurement models of PTSD require greater explication and construct validation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Current Research: Spiro and Caddoan Connections on the Northern Frontier of Southwest Missouri

Excavations during the construction of Table Rock Lake in the late 1950s resulted in a proposition that there was a colonization of peoples into the upper White River drainage from Caddoan areas to the southwest (Chapman 1980; Chapman et al. 1960). This colonization, which resulted in the formulation of the Loftin phase, is widely accepted today (O'Brien and Wood 1998; Perttula 1983, 1989; Sabo and Early 1990). Later, James Brown (1984) exposed the myth that the southwestern Ozarks was a cultural enclave that lagged behind Mississippian developments in other parts of the Trans-Mississippi South.

Identifying and sourcing pyrometamorphic artifacts: Clinker in subarctic North America and the hunter-gatherer response to a Late Holocene volcanic eruption

Pyrometamorphic rocks produced by natural coal combustion appear at archaeological sites across North America but have received little archaeological attention regarding provenance studies. Tertiary Hills Clinker is a distinct pyrometamorphic rock from Subarctic Canada utilized by hunter-gatherers from 10,000 years ago to European contact. We employ X-ray diffraction, thin section analyses, and electron probe microanalyses to characterise Tertiary Hills Clinker and inform archaeometric studies of rock produced by combustion metamorphism. We geochemically compare pyrometamorphic rocks used by pre-contact people across North America to demonstrate that Tertiary Hills Clinker can be sourced using portable X-ray fluorescence. Results indicate that Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene exchange networks in North America were larger than previously thought. A later change in the distribution of Tertiary Hills Clinker may relate to a Late Holocene volcanic eruption (White River Ash east) that fragmented modes of lithic exchange and associated social networks with potential stimulus for a subsequent large-scale migration of northern hunter-gatherers across the continent. Provenance studies of pyrometamorphic artifacts offer untapped opportunities to study social networks in coal-bearing regions across the world.

The temporal effects of heavy metal contamination on the fish community of the West Fork White River, Delaware County, Indiana, USA.

The importance of monitoring anthropogenic changes in a lotic system is not limited to chemical water quality monitoring. The addition of biological monitoring allows fish to be used as bioindicators because of their varying tolerance to pollution. For this study, we utilized long-term water quality and fish data to evaluate temporal changes brought on by passage of the Clean Water Act (1972). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS) was used to describe changes in the fish community and also heavy metal concentrations of the West Fork White River in Muncie, Indiana, USA, over the past 33years. A linear mixed effects model was used to evaluate the relationship between heavy metal concentrations and the fish community. The NMS results for both heavy metals and fish were separated into distinct decadal clusters. The shift in fish community data represented by NMS axis 1 was characterized by a drop in pollution-tolerant species and an increase in intolerant species. Decreases in heavy metal concentrations of chromium, zinc, and lead were also significant predictors of changes in the fish community. All NMS fish axis had a positive slope indicating an increase in intolerant species as heavy metal concentrations decreased. Our findings indicate that the water quality improvements documented in the West Fork White River have directly impacted its local fish community.

Field Assessment of Colorado pikeminnow Exposure to Mercury Within Its Designated Critical Habitat in Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico

Mercury contamination in freshwater fish is widespread across North America, including the western United States. Atmospheric mercury from both natural and manmade emissions deposits into watersheds and, through methylation and biomagnification, accumulates in aquatic food webs. Highest mercury concentrations are found in predatory fish. The endangered Colorado pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius) is a long-lived, top-level piscivore endemic to the Colorado River basin. Mercury exposure to Colorado pikeminnow and another native fish species, the roundtail chub (Gila robusta), was assessed by analyzing muscle tissues collected using a nonlethal technique. Mercury concentrations in Colorado pikeminnow > 400-mm long, captured from critical habitat throughout the species’ present range, exceeded the tissue threshold-effect level of 0.2 µg/g wet weight (WW) for whole body fish (0.31 µg/g WW in muscle) recommended to protect fish from injury. Mercury is a neurotoxin and endocrine disruptor, and impacts to fish may include reduced ability to avoid predators, secure food, and reproduce. The highest mercury concentrations were found in both Colorado pikeminnow and roundtail chub collected from the White River, a tributary to the Green River. Colorado pikeminnow from the White and Green rivers had the highest mean mercury concentrations and the lowest mean relative body conditions. Exposure to high mercury concentrations may act in concert with other threatening factors to compromise Colorado pikeminnow population viability and eventual recovery.

THE STRIPED MULLET, MUGIL CEPHALUS (MUGILIFORMES: MUGILIDAE), FROM THE UPPER WHITE RIVER, ARKANSAS

During July 2011 we collected an adult striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) from the upper White River in the Ozark Plateau of Arkansas. This is the first record of the species from the upper White River drainage; there is one record from the extreme lower portion of the White River where it drains into the Arkansas River. Eight other previous records of M. cephalus from the state include those from the lower Arkansas, lower Mississippi, upper Ouachita, and Red–Sulphur rivers. The species is listed as S1 (critically imperiled) in the state by the Nature Conservancy.

Respecting water: Indigenous water governance, ontologies, and the politics of kinship on the ground

Indigenous peoples often view water as a living entity or a relative, to which they have a sacred responsibility. Such a perspective frequently conflicts with settler societies’ view of water as a “resource” that can be owned, managed, and exploited. Although rarely articulated explicitly, water conflicts are rooted in ontological differences between Indigenous and settler views of water. Furthermore, the unequal water governance landscape created by settler colonialism has perpetuated the suppression of Indigenous ways of conceptualizing water. This paper thus examines the “political ontology” of water by drawing on insights from the fields of critical Indigenous studies, post-humanism, and water governance. Additionally, we engage a case study of four Yukon First Nations (Carcross/Tagish, Kluane, Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in, and White River First Nations) in the Canadian North to examine their water ontologies through the lens of a politics of kinship including ideas about “respecting water.” We also examine the assumptions of settler-colonial water governance in the territory, shaped by modern land claims and self-government agreements. We close by discussing the implications of Indigenous water ontologies for alternate modes of governing water.

Impacts of Material Engineering Properties on Slope Wash and Stability in Fine-Grained Bedrock Slopes at Fossil-Bearing Sites, Badlands National Park, South Dakota, USA

Engineering properties of bedrock materials at Badlands National Park were used to develop models for Park managers to assess slope erosion and stability for fossil resource protection. Six fully instrumented sites were used to document slope conditions. Bedrock consisted of Oligocene White River Group rocks. Bulk erosion rates correlated to grain size with silty-sandy materials producing higher mass erosion rates as a function of the silt-to-clay ratio and plastic index. Data indicated that as grain size decreased, plastic index increased leading to a decrease in erodibility. These parameters were used to construct a grain-size proxy, ψ, that was substituted for grain size, D, in Bagnold’s entrainment equation and provided significant improvement in calculation of critical entrainment velocities for fine-grained materials. Hydraulic analyses of slope and pediment surface processes indicated surface roughness was a controlling factor and materials washed from rough steep slopes were effectively transported across smooth low-angle pediments with slope-to-pediment angle ratios of nearly 6:1. Slope stability modeling of ten slopes produced high factors of safety for all slopes, even under saturated conditions and was attributable to clay cohesion. All results were used to construct models that predicted years until net slope erosion equaled 2.5 cm (1 inch). Using these results, Park managers were advised to visit erosion-prone sites on a 1- to 6-year schedule, based on site geology and slope aspect, to adequately protect critical fossil resources from destruction.

Comparison of Two Crayfish Trapping Methods in Coastal Plain Seasonal Wetlands

AbstractWe compared crayfish collections from minnow versus microhabitat traps in the Dahomey National Wildlife Refuge, Bolivar County, Mississippi, extending the knowledge of microhabitat trap effectiveness to seasonal bottomland hardwood forest floodplains. Crayfishes were captured in three seasonally flooded habitat types: wooded, trail, and open habitats. The CPUE of vernal crayfish Procambarus viaeviridis and White River crayfish P. acutus was higher in minnow traps, whereas the CPUE of swamp dwarf crayfish Cambarellus puer was higher in microhabitat traps. The CPUE did not differ among habitat types for either trap type. In minnow traps, the CPUE of vernal and White River crayfishes increased steadily during the study, whereas the CPUE of swamp dwarf crayfish did not vary over time. In microhabitat traps, the CPUE did not vary over time for any species. Microhabitat traps were more effective at collecting adult, female vernal crayfish in the winter than in spring, whereas minnow traps were more effective at collecting adult, female vernal crayfish in the spring than in winter. Form I males of all three species were collected in both trap types throughout the study, whereas the only ovigerous females collected were swamp dwarf crayfish. Microhabitat traps caught more small crayfishes, pertinent to studies of population structure and recruitment, and were more effective at collecting adult swamp dwarf crayfish, a species five times smaller than other collected species. Conversely, minnow traps provided a better understanding of abundances and population structures of larger crayfishes. Using both trap types provided data on all size‐classes and life stages and reduced sampling selectivity.

Remote Sensing Satellite Data Preparation for Simulating and Forecasting River Discharge

Simulating and forecasting river discharge using satellite information is one of the most economical ways of measuring discharge, especially in remote areas where in situ gauges are too expensive to install, maintain, and operate. However, satellite signals are affected by climatic factors, such as clouds, mist, dust storms, and smoke from large forest fires. Hence, a reliable method of preparing and treating space-based signals is necessary. In this paper, a method is introduced to remove inaccurate and out-of-range signals having a low correlation with the in situ discharge measurements, using a combination of data classification and outlier detection procedures. To forecast future river discharge using space-based signals, the signal data set should not contain any gaps. Therefore, we introduced a procedure for the missing signals to be estimated by a model calibrated using the measured discharge. This procedure is illustrated using a case study for the White River, near Boston, MA, USA, that involved using a ddata set of three years’ daily signals of the passive microwave information from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System satellite, which are obtained from the difference between thermal emission of wet and dry land surfaces, and the in situ discharge measurements of the river. The best model was selected from 6200 available models using the Pareto front. The optimum model detected 339 samples as outliers and eliminated them from the data set. Subsequently, the signals were calibrated with the in situ information, and the results indicated the superior accuracy in simulating White River discharge using satellite information.

Dam trout: Genetic variability in Oncorhynchus mykiss above and below barriers in three Columbia River systems prior to restoring migrational access.

Restoration of access to lost habitat for threatened and endangered fishes above currently impassable dams represents a major undertaking. Biological monitoring is critical to understand the dynamics and success of anadromous recolonization as, in the case of Oncorhynchus mykiss, anadromous steelhead populations are reconnected with their conspecific resident rainbow trout counterparts. We evaluate three river systems in the Lower Columbia River basin: the White Salmon, Sandy, and Lewis rivers that are in the process of removing and/or providing passage around existing human-made barriers in O. mykiss riverine habitat. In these instances, now isolated resident rainbow trout populations will be exposed to competition and/or genetic introgression with steelhead and vice versa. Our genetic analyses of 2,158 fish using 13 DNA microsatellite (mSAT) loci indicated that within each basin anadromous O. mykiss were genetically distinct from and significantly more diverse than their resident above-dam trout counterparts. Above long-standing natural impassable barriers, each of these watersheds also harbors unique rainbow trout gene pools with reduced levels of genetic diversity. Despite frequent releases of non-native steelhead and rainbow trout in each river, hatchery releases do not appear to have had a significant genetic effect on the population structure of O. mykiss in any of these watersheds. Simulation results suggest there is a high likelihood of identifying anadromous x resident individuals in the Lewis and White Salmon rivers, and slightly less so in the Sandy River. These genetic data are a prerequisite for informed monitoring, managing, and conserving the different life history forms during upstream recolonization when sympatry of life history forms of O. mykiss is restored.

Genetic diversity, effective population size, and structure among black bear populations in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley, USA

Multiple small populations of American black bears Ursus americanus, including the recently delisted Louisiana black bear subspecies U. a. luteolus, occupy a fragmented landscape in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley, USA (LMAV). Populations include bears native to the LMAV, bears translocated from Minnesota during the 1960s, and recently reintroduced and colonizing populations sourced from within the LMAV. We estimated population structure, gene flow, and genetic parameters important to conservation of small populations using genotypes at 23 microsatellite markers for 265 bears from seven populations. We inferred five genetic clusters corresponding to the following populations: White River and western Mississippi, Tensas River and Three Rivers, Upper Atchafalaya, Lower Atchafalaya, and Minnesota. Upper Atchafalaya was suggested as the product of Minnesota-sourced translocations, but those populations have since diverged, likely because of a founder effect followed by genetic drift and isolation. An admixture zone recently developed in northeastern Louisiana and western Mississippi between migrants from White River and Tensas River, resulting in a Wahlund effect. However, gene flow among most populations has been limited and considerable genetic differentiation accumulated (global FST = 0.22), particularly among the three Louisiana black bear populations that existed when federal listing occurred. Consistent with previous bottlenecks, founder effects, and persisting isolation, all LMAV bear populations had low genetic diversity (AR = 2.08–4.81; HE = 0.36–0.63) or small effective population size (NE = 3–49). Translocating bears among populations as part of a regional genetic restoration program may help improve genetic diversity and increase effective population sizes.

Legacy Lead from Past Mining Activity and Gasoline Additives: Evidence from Lead Isotopes and Trace Element Geochemical Studies in the White River Basin, Southern Ozark Region, USA

Lead isotope compositions and Pb, Cu, Zn, and As concentrations in stream sediment leachates in the White River Basin, southern Ozark Region, have been determined to discriminate between natural and anthropogenic sources of Pb and to assess the metal loads that are transported by streams draining the Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) Zn-Pb mines in the Northern Arkansas district. The samples that were collected downstream of and closest to the mines have trace element concentrations well above those in soils from Arkansas. The trace element concentrations are lower in samples that were collected upstream of the mines. Most of the analyzed samples have trace metal concentrations above the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Sediment Quality Guidelines Threshold Effects Level. The Pb isotope values of the downstream samples and the MVT ores are similar, suggesting a similar Pb source. The Pb isotope values of the upstream samples are similar to those that were defined by soils from the Ozark Plateau, suggesting that Pb from historic mining does not dominate upstream sediments. However, a linear regression line through the leachate data indicates that mixing between two end-members represented by leaded gasoline and ores could generate the Pb isotope ratios that were noticed in the upstream leachates.

Using an Inpatient Quality Improvement Curriculum for Internal Medicine Residents to Improve Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Administration Rates

Pneumococcal infections are an important source of morbidity and mortality in older adults and persons with compromised immune systems. New recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) became available September 2014, which included recommendations for the use of the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13). A study was conducted to increase the PCV13 vaccination rates of hospitalized patients at the White River Junction Veterans Affairs Medical Center (White River Junction, Vermont) through the use of a resident-driven quality improvement (QI) project. From December 2014 through April 2016, 16 internal medicine inpatient residents addressed inpatient PCV13 vaccination rates by participating in the facility's QI curriculum. Eight Plan-Do-Study-Act cycles were used, including discharge template editing, electronic reminders, and the discovery of a vaccination administration documentation error in the record through data validation. The measure was the monthly percentage of patients who received PCV13 vaccination (vaccination completion rate) of those discharged from the hospital medicine service who were due for PCV13 vaccination. The percentage of veterans discharged with an up-to-date PCV13 vaccination on discharge increased from approximately 30% to 87% and was sustained. Despite being driven by many different residents, this project demonstrates that continuous improvement can be achieved through a structured and iterative process while providing active learning of core QI concepts to residents. It also displays a method in which new guidelines can be incorporated into practice in an effective manner. Finally, this project is an example of how resident-driven data validation can lead to further improvement.

Stochastic Forecasting Models of the Monthly Streamflow for the Blue Nile at Eldiem Station

Egypt is almost totally dependent on the River Nile for satisfying about 95% of its water requirements. The River Nile has three main tributaries: White Nile, Blue Nile, and River Atbara. The Blue Nile contributes about 60% of total annual flow reached the River Nile at Aswan High Dam. The goal of this research is to develop a reliable stochastic model for the monthly streamflow of the Blue Nile at Eldiem station, where the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is currently under construction with a storage capacity of about 74 billion m3. The developed model may help to carry out a reliable study on the filling scenarios of GERD reservoir and to minimize its expected negative side effects on Sudan and Egypt. The linear models: Deseasonalized AutoRegressive Moving Average (DARMA) model, Periodic AutoRegressive Moving Average (PARMA) model and Seasonal AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA) model; and the nonlinear Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model are selected for modeling monthly streamflow at Eldiem station. The performance of various models during calibration and validation were evaluated using the statistical indices: Mean Absolute Error, Root Mean Square Error and coefficient of determination (R2) which indicate the strength of fitting between observed and forecasted values. The results show that the performance of the nonlinear model (ANN) was much better than all investigated linear models (DARMA, PARMA and SARIMA) in forecasting the monthly flow discharges at Eldiem station.

High-resolution age modelling of peat bogs from northern Alberta, Canada, using pre- and post-bomb 14C, 210Pb and historical cryptotephra

Abstract High-resolution studies of peat profiles are frequently undertaken to investigate natural and anthropogenic disturbances over time. However, overlapping profiles of the most commonly applied age-dating techniques, including 14C and 210Pb, often show significant offsets (>decadal) and biases that can be difficult to resolve. Here we investigate variations in the chronometers and individual site histories from six ombrotrophic peat bogs in central and northern Alberta. Dates produced using pre- and post-bomb 14C, 210Pb (corroborated with 137Cs and 241Am), and cryptotephra peaks, are compared and then integrated using OxCal's P_Sequence function to produce a single Bayesian age model. Environmental histories for each site obtained using physical and chemical characteristics of the peat cores, e.g. plant macrofossils, humification, ash content and dry density, provide important constraints for the models by highlighting periods with significant changes in accumulation rate, e.g. fire events, permafrost development, and prolonged surficial drying. Despite variable environmental histories, it is possible to produce high-resolution age-depth models for each core sequence. Consistent offsets between 14C and 210Pb dates pre-1960s are seen at five of the six sites, but tephra-corrected 210Pb data can be used to produce more coherent models at three of these sites. Processes such as permafrost development and thaw, surficial drying and local fires can disrupt the normal processes by which chronological markers and environmental records are incorporated in the peat record. In consequence, applying standard dating methodologies to these records will result in even greater uncertainties and discrepancies between the different dating tools. These results show that using any single method to accurately date peat profiles where accumulation has not been uniform over time may be unreliable, but a comprehensive multi-method investigation paired with the application of Bayesian statistics can produce more robust chronologies. New cryptotephra data for the Alberta region are also reported here, including the historical Novarupta-Katmai 1912 eruption, White River Ash (East), and glass from Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Churchill, and probable Aleutian sources.

Fish Ladder Numerical Modelling

The paper presents a 1D numerical modeling of the sanitary water flow passing through a fish ladder designed for the low head step built across the Alb (White) River near Coroiesti Vilage in Hunedoara County. The model aims to evaluate the water velocity spectrum, emphasizing the maximum values, in the cross sections along this passing structure and in the same time to establish the water levels development. In order to reach this goal, the numerical model will consider a sinthetical hydrograph based on the maximum value of the sanitary water flow required on the river.

Molecular Detection of Northern Leatherside Chub (Lepidomeda copei) DNA in Environmental Samples

The northern leatherside chub (Lepidomeda copei) is a cyprinid fish native to the Snake River, Green River, and Bonneville basins of the western United States. Population declines prompted the development of a multistate conservation agreement and strategy, which emphasized the need to reliably delineate its current distribution and monitor its status. To facilitate species monitoring, we developed a quantitative PCR assay to detect northern leatherside chub DNA in environmental samples. The assay consistently detected northern leatherside chub DNA in concentrations as low as 2 copies per reaction and did not amplify DNA of potentially sympatric fish species. The assay amplified a synthetic DNA template representing 3 congeneric species: White River spinedace (L. albivallis), Virgin spinedace, (L. mollispinis mollispinis), and Big Spring spinedace, (L. m. pratensis); however, none of these are sympatric with northern leatherside chub. Field tests of the assay accurately reproduced expected patterns of species occupancy.

Reassessment of the Crayfishes of the Upper Ohio River Basin in Pennsylvania.

Crayfishes are keystone species and ecosystem engineers in freshwater systems and are considered the third most imperiled taxa on the planet. In 1906, Arnold Ortmann published one of the most complete historic crayfish surveys ever conducted, which has allowed Pennsylvania to assess changes to crayfish fauna over the past century. More recently, waterways have been impacted by anthropogenic stressors such as urbanization and extractive industry. Our primary goal is to determine changes in species distributions and relative abundances of crayfishes in western Pennsylvania by visiting historical and new sites. Surveys in 2015-16 focused on collecting primary burrowers by trapping and burrow excavation. In 2017, efforts shifted to epigean species in the Upper Ohio River drainage, using standardized sampling of 10 seine hauls/site to assess 265 sites. Populations of primary burrowing crayfishes were found at 20% of 61 historical sites and 72% of 57 new collection sites. Of epigean crayfishes, 79% were found at 102 historical sites and 97% of 163 new sites. These collections represent approximately 60% of the survey, with remaining collections to occur in 2018. Important findings were three nonnative species: Faxonius rusticus (Rusty Crayfish), Procambarus clarkii (Red Swamp Crayfish), and Procambarus acutus (White River Crayfish). Preliminary data suggests that crayfish fauna in western Pennsylvania has remained moderately stable over the last century, though the presence of nonnative crayfishes indicates the need for continued monitoring. Efforts in Pennsylvania must focus on prevention and management of the spread of nonnative species to preserve the native crayfish populations that remain.

Economic and Social Effects of Rice Cultivation Practices Operation (Case Study: Rice Cultivator Villages in Rasht County)

Economic and Social Effects of Rice Cultivation Practices Operation (Case Study: Rice Cultivator Villages in Rasht County)