White Ginseng Extract Research Articles

Ginsenosides and Lignan Contents during the Fermentation Process of White Ginseng Extract: A Study Comparing the Altered Contents according to the Amount of Schisandra chinensis Baillon Supplementation

Ginsenosides and Lignan Contents during the Fermentation Process of White Ginseng Extract: A Study Comparing the Altered Contents according to the Amount of Schisandra chinensis Baillon Supplementation

Neuroprotective effects of Korean White ginseng and Red ginseng in an ischemic stroke mouse model

BackgroundStroke is a neurological disorder characterized by brain tissue damage following a decrease in oxygen supply to brain due to blocked blood vessels. Reportedly, 80% of all stroke cases are classified as cerebral infarction, and the incidence rate of this condition increases with age. Herein, we compared the efficacies of Korean White ginseng (WG) and Korean Red Ginseng (RG) extracts (WGex and RGex, respectively) in an ischemic stroke mouse model and confirmed the underlying mechanisms of action. MethodsMice were orally administered WGex or RGex 1 h before middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), for 2 h; the size of the infarct area was measured 24 h after MCAO induction. Then, the neurological deficit score was evaluated and the efficacies of the two extracts were compared. Finally, their mechanisms of action were confirmed with tissue staining and protein quantification. ResultsIn the MCAO-induced ischemic stroke mouse model, WGex and RGex showed neuroprotective effects in the cortical region, with RGex demonstrating superior efficacy than WGex. Ginsenoside Rg1, a representative indicator substance, was not involved in mediating the effects of WGex and RGex. ConclusionWGex and RGex could alleviate the brain injury caused by ischemia/reperfusion, with RGex showing a more potent effect. At 1,000 mg/kg body weight, only RGex reduced cerebral infarction and edema, and both anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic pathways were involved in mediating these effects.

Correlation between the Content and Pharmacokinetics of Ginsenosides from Four Different Preparation of Panax Ginseng C.A. Meyer in Rats

We aimed to compare the content of ginsenosides and the pharmacokinetics after the oral administration of four different ginseng products at a dose of 1 g/kg in rats. The four different ginseng products were fresh ginseng extract, red ginseng extract, white ginseng extract, and saponin enriched white ginseng extract prepared from the radix of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. The ginsenoside concentrations in the ginseng product and the rat plasma samples were determined using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Eight or nine ginsenosides of the 15 tested ginsenosides were detected; however, the content and total ginsenosides varied depending on the preparation method. Moreover, the content of triglycosylated ginsenosides was higher than that of diglycosylated ginsenosides, and deglycosylated ginsenosides were not present in any preparation. After the single oral administrations of four different ginseng products in rats, only four ginsenosides, such as 20(S)-ginsenosides Rb1 (GRb1), GRb2, GRc, and GRd, were detected in the rat plasma samples among the 15 ginsenosides tested. The plasma concentrations of GRb1, GRb2, GRc, and GRd were different depends on the preparation method but pharmacokinetic features of the four ginseng products were similar. In conclusion, a good correlation between the area under the concentration curve and the content of GRb1, GRb2, and GRc, but not GRd, in the ginseng products was identified and it might be the result of their higher content and intestinal biotransformation of the ginseng product.

Antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of Korean ginseng extract GS-KG9 in a D-galactosamine-induced liver damage animal model.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESThis study was designed to investigate the improvement effect of white ginseng extract (GS-KG9) on D-galactosamine (Ga1N)-induced oxidative stress and liver injury.SUBJECTS/METHODSSixty Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 6 groups. Rats were orally administrated with GS-KG9 (300, 500, or 700 mg/kg) or silymarin (25 mg/kg) for 2 weeks. The rats of the GS-KG9- and silymarin-treated groups and a control group were then intraperitoneally injected Ga1N at a concentration of 650 mg/kg for 4 days. To investigate the protective effect of GS-KG9 against GalN-induced liver injury, blood liver function indicators, anti-oxidative stress indicators, and histopathological features were analyzed.RESULTSSerum biochemical analysis indicated that GS-KG9 ameliorated the elevation of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in GalN-treated rats. The hepatoprotective effects of GS-KG9 involved enhancing components of the hepatic antioxidant defense system, including glutathione, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT). In addition, GS-KG9 treatment inhibited reactive oxygen species (ROS) production induced by GalN treatment in hepatocytes and significantly increased the expression levels of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) proteins, which are antioxidant proteins. In particular, by histological analyses bases on hematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome, α-smooth muscle actin, and transforming growth factor-β1 staining, we determined that the administration of 500 mg/kg GS-KG9 inhibited hepatic inflammation and fibrosis due to the excessive accumulation of collagen.CONCLUSIONSThese findings demonstrate that GS-KG9 improves GalN-induced liver inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis by attenuating oxidative stress. Therefore, GS-KG9 may be considered a useful candidate in the development of a natural preventive agent against liver injury.

Explosively Puffed Ginseng Ameliorates Ionizing Radiation-Induced Injury of Colon by Decreasing Oxidative Stress-Related Apoptotic Cell Execution in Mice.

Although radiation therapy (RT) is a feasible treatment approach for early colorectal cancer, RT is considerably toxic to normal tissues due to the increased reactive oxygen species production, which can induce tissue damage. Ginseng, a natural antioxidant agent, exhibits the protective effects against ionizing radiation (IR)-induced damage in in vitro and in vivo models. The explosive puffing of ginseng has been investigated as a process to improve the efficacy of ginseng due to the resulting physicochemical changes in its functional components. In this study, we provided the evidence for promotion in the beneficial role of puffed ginseng extract (PGE) and associated mechanisms of action, in comparison with white ginseng extract (WGE), against IR-induced colorectal injury, using in vivo study on a mouse model. To study the role of PGE in preventing IR-induced damage, we examined colorectal injury and apoptotic changes in mice exposed to 137Cs at 8 Gy. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis showed that PGE had an increased total ginsenoside concentration with new generation of Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1, compared with the concentrations in WGE. Administering PGE, but not WGE, significantly ameliorated IR-induced colorectal cell death through negative regulation of apoptotic signaling pathways. These antiapoptotic effects of PGE were linked to the capacity to suppress the p53-mediated DNA damage response and NF-κB-mediated apoptotic signaling. Moreover, IR-induced oxidative stress in the colorectal epithelium was markedly reduced by PGE administration. Collectively, this study establishes a mechanism of action by which PGE counteracts IR-induced colorectal injury as a novel radioprotective agent.

Rapid discrimination between red and white ginseng based on unique mass-spectrometric features

Red ginseng (RG) and white ginseng (WG), two processed products of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, are in high demand due to their unique features. In this study, some of these unique features were identified and confirmed as biomarkers of RG by using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, data mining, support vector machine, and artificial neural network. Principal component analysis showed clear separation between the RG and WG extracts, indicating the presence of potential discriminators. In addition, 20 features that are dominant in RG were found by data mining. Samples of Panax quinquefolium (PQ) and Panax notoginseng (PN), close relatives of Panax ginseng C.A.Meyer, were investigated and it was found that 17 features which were absent in PQ and PN samples, were present in RG and WG. Five of these markers were identified as nitrogen-containing compounds that have not been previously reported. Finally, we found that RG can be identified among different ginseng medicinal herbs including RG, WG, PQ, and PN samples, by loading four feature markers corresponding to nitrogen-containing compounds into a discriminating model, based on a support vector machine or an artificial neural network. Thus, this study provides an efficient tool to identify RG during pharmacological research.

A comparative study on immune-stimulatory and antioxidant activities of various types of ginseng extracts in murine and rodent models

BackgroundGinseng (Panax ginseng) is a widely used traditional herbal supplement that possesses various health-enhancing efficacies. Various ginseng products are available in market, especially in the Korean peninsula, in the form of drinks, tablets, and capsules. The different ginseng types include the traditional red ginseng extract (RGE), white ginseng, and black red ginseng extract (BRGE). Their fermented and enzyme-treated products are also available. Different treatment regimens alter the bioavailability of certain compounds present in the respective ginseng extracts. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to compare the antioxidant and immune-stimulating activities of RGE, BRGE, and fermented red ginseng extract (FRGE). MethodsWe used an acetaminophen-induced oxidative stress model for investigating the reduction of oxidative stress by RGE, BRGE, and FRGE in Sprague Dawley rats. A cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression model was used to evaluate the immune-stimulating activities of these ginseng extracts in BALB/c mice. ResultsOur results showed that most prominently, RGE (in almost all experiments) exhibited excellent antioxidant effects via increasing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities in the liver and decreasing serum 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels compared with the groups treated with FRGE and BRGE. Moreover, RGE significantly increased the number of white blood cells, especially T and B lymphocytes, and antibody-forming cells in the spleen and thymus, and it also activated a number of immune cell subtypes. ConclusionTaken together, these results indicate that RGE is the best supplement for consumption in everyday life for overall health-enhancing properties.

Ameliorative effect of black ginseng extract against oxidative stress-induced cellular damages in mouse hepatocytes

BackgroundOxidative stress induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which play important causative roles in various pathological conditions. Black ginseng (BG), a type of steam-processed ginseng, has drawn significant attention due to its biological activity, and is more potent than white ginseng (WG) or red ginseng (RG). MethodsWe evaluated the protective effects of BG extract (BGE) against oxidative stress-induced cellular damage, in comparison with WG extract (WGE) and RG extract (RGE) in a cell culture model. Ethanolic extracts of WG, RG, and BG were used to evaluate ginsenoside profiles, total polyphenols, flavonoid contents, and antioxidant activity. Using AML-12 cells treated with H2O2, the protective effects of WGE, RGE, and BGE on cellular redox status, DNA, protein, lipid damage, and apoptosis levels were investigated. ResultsBGE exhibited significantly enhanced antioxidant potential, as well as total flavonoid and polyphenol contents. ATP levels were significantly higher in BGE-treated cells than in control; ROS generation and glutathione disulfide levels were lower but glutathione (GSH) and NADPH levels were higher in BGE-treated cells than in other groups. Pretreatment with BGE inhibited apoptosis and therefore protected cells from oxidative stress-induced cellular damage, probably through ROS scavenging. ConclusionCollectively, our results demonstrate that BGE protects AML-12 cells from oxidative stress-induced cellular damages more effectively than WGE or RGE, through ROS scavenging, maintenance of redox status, and activation of the antioxidant defense system.

Chronic dietary ginseng extract administration ameliorates antioxidant and cholinergic systems in the brains of aged mice

BackgroundBlack ginseng has a more potent biological activity than non-steamed ginseng. We investigated the effects of long-term intake of dietary black ginseng extract (BG) on antioxidant activity in aged mice. We also compared the effects of BG on cognitive deficits with those of white ginseng extract (WG) and red ginseng extract (RG). MethodsTen-month-old mice were fed an AIN-93G-based diet containing 10 g/kg (low dose, L) or 30 g/kg (high dose, H) WG powder, RG powder, or BG powder for 24 wk. We measured serum lipids, the activities of antioxidant enzymes, and malondialdehyde levels. Additionally, the protein expression levels of choline acetyltransferase and vesicular acetylcholine transporter, which are presynaptic cholinergic markers in the cortex and hippocampus of the brain, were measured by western blotting. ResultsTriglyceride levels were reduced in all the extract-treated mice, except those in the LBG group. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the HBG group were higher than those in the control group. Total cholesterol levels were reduced in the LBG group. Additionally, glucose levels in the HBG group were significantly reduced by 41.2%. There were lower levels of malondialdehyde in the LBG group than in the control group. Furthermore, glutathione reductase activity increased in the HWG group and the HRG group. The protein expression levels of choline acetyltransferase and vesicular acetylcholine transporter significantly increased in all the ginseng-treated groups. ConclusionThe results suggest that supplementation with the tested ginseng extracts may suppress the cognitive decline associated with aging, via regulation of the cholinergic and antioxidant defense systems.

White Ginseng Protects Mouse Hippocampal Cells Against Amyloid-Beta Oligomer Toxicity.

Amyloid-beta oligomer (AβO) is a soluble oligomer form of the Aβ peptide and the most potent amyloid-beta form that induces neuronal damage in Alzheimer's disease. We investigated the effect of dried white ginseng extract (WGE) on neuronal cell damage and memory impairment in intrahippocampal AβO (10μM)-injected mice. Mice were treated with WGE (100 and 500mg/kg/day, p.o.) for 12days after surgery. WGE improved memory impairment by inhibiting hippocampal cell death caused by AβO. In addition, AβO-injected mice treated with WGE showed restoration of reduced synaptophysin and choline acetyltransferase intensity and lower levels of ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 in the hippocampus compared with those of vehicle-treated controls. These results suggest that WGE reverses memory impairment in Alzheimer's disease by attenuating neuronal damage and neuroinflammation in the AβO-injected mouse hippocampus. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

White ginseng extract induces immunomodulatory effects via the MKK4-JNK pathway.

Panax ginseng Meyer (white ginseng) is a popular functional food and its biological effects on the human body have been noted for hundreds of years. In the present study, the underlying mechanisms responsible for the immunomodulatory effects of white ginseng extract (WGE) were investigated. WGE increased NO production via upregulation of iNOS expression levels. Mouse cytokine array results also revealed that the expression of 13 cytokines was elevated by WGE treatment in IFN-γ-primed macrophage cells. Although both MKK4-JNK and MEK-ERK signaling pathways were activated after treatment with WGE, only the MKK4-JNK signaling pathway appears to have any significant immunomodulatory significance. Oral administration of WGE for 28 days recovered cyclophosphamide (CY)-induced suppression of the immune system in mice via the MKK4-JNK pathway. Taken together, these findings suggest that the MKK4-JNK signaling pathway is a crucial mechanism of WGE-induced immunomodulation.

Study on White Ginseng Extract Preparation for Cognition Improvement

Study on White Ginseng Extract Preparation for Cognition Improvement

기호성 개선 인삼농축액 제조를 위한 추출 조건 설정

This study was designed to develop a manufacturing process for ginseng concentrate with reduced unpleasant aroma and bitter taste. Two types of ginseng, white and red, were extracted under six different conditions (the 1st to the 6th step) of temperature (65~95℃) and ethanol concentration (0~70%). Six extracts of each ginseng were evaluated by a sensory test, and assayed for crude saponin, ginsenosides, and acidic polysaccharides. The content of crude saponin in the extracts decreased with extraction time. There was no significant difference in the crude saponin content between white and red ginseng extracts. The yield of red ginseng extract was higher (45%) than that of white ginseng. No significant difference was observed in the acidic polysaccharide content between red and white ginseng extracts. Rg3, a specific ginsenoside in red ginseng, was detected in the 1st to 6th extracts of red ginseng. Bitterness, astringency, and sourness of ginseng extracts decreased as the extraction steps proceeded. The composite of the 1st, 2nd, and 6th step extracts decreased bitterness and astringency, and the highest overall acceptance. Compared with commercial beverages, the composition of the three extracts is the desirable method to decrease the bitter and astringent tastes, and the overall unpleasant flavor of ginseng.

백삼, 홍삼, 흑삼 추출물의 생리활성 비교 연구

백삼, 홍삼, 흑삼 추출물의 생리활성 비교 연구

마우스 수컷 생식세포에서 비스페놀 A에 대한 인삼 에탄올 추출물의 보호 효과

Department of Herbal Crop Research, NIHHS, RDA, Eumsung 369-873, Korea.ABSTRACT : This study was carried out to evaluate the preventive effect of three forms of Korean ginseng roots (fresh,white and red) against bisphenol A (BPA) toxicity in mouse male germ cells (GC-2spd, TM3, TM4). ROS (reactive oxygenspecies) generation were measured by DCF-DA (2’,7’-dichlorohydrofluorescein diacetate) assay. Also, semi-quantitativereverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to quantify the mRNA expression levels of apop-tosis-related genes, Bax (pro-apoptotic gene) and Bcl2 (anti-apoptotic gene). ROS generation was increased by 50µM BPA,but definitely decreased by treatment with Korean ginseng extracts (fresh, white and red) in mouse male germ cells. In espe-cial, Korean fresh ginseng extract reduced significantly ROS production to normal control. In addition, Korean fresh andwhite ginseng extracts suppressed the apoptosis of mouse male germ cells by fine-tuning mRNA levels of apoptotic geneschanged by BPA. In general, Korean fresh ginseng extract was more effective than white ginseng extract for reducing BPA-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in mouse male germ cells. Therefore, Korean fresh and white ginseng may help toalleviate biphenol A toxicity in mouse male germ cells.Key Words : Panax ginseng, Bisphenol A, Germ Cell, Apoptosis, Reproductive Toxicity

Anti-Obese Effects of Ginseng/Ginsenosides

Compared to the large numbers of studies on the diabetes, hyperlipidemia and cancer therpeutic effects of ginseng, the anti-obese effect and mechanisms of ginsengs have not been studied as much. To determine the effects of ginseng on obesity, 14 keywords (ginseng, ginsenoside, obesity, weight, fat, diet, overeat, appetite, lipid, 3T3-L1, adipocyte, food intake, adipogenesis and lipolysis) were combined in searching a database. Fifty-six articles published from 1983 to 2012 as well as 656 patents registered until Aug 17<SUP>th</SUP>, 2012, were screened for anti-obese effects of ginseng. In the classification of experimental methods, 16 papers on 3T3-L1 cells, 38 papers on animals and three papers on human were reviewed. In terms of obese mechanisms of action, the most commonly used biomarkers were in order of lipid profiles ＞ weight change ＞ blood glucose ＞ adipocytokine. Most ginseng studies on obesity focused on AMPK, PPARγ, GLUT-4, PI3K and SREBP-1. Korean white ginseng extracts and Re repressed the lipogenesis genes such as PPARc2, SREBP-1c, LPL, FAS and DGAT1. However, ginseng or ginsenosides, PD (Rb1) and PT (Re), showed different or contradictory results. Water and ethanol extraction of ginseng showed contradictory effects on the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, wheras IL-6 was repressed by ethanol extracts and TNF-α repressed by Re in vitro. Based on the literature, further studies on anti-obese mechanisms of ginseng, such as the inflammation-related obesity or cross signals between the adipocytes and the environments, are needed, instead of more studies on its hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic effects.

Enhancement of the cytotoxicities and antioxidative activities of white ginseng extract by hydrolysis under mild acidic conditions

White ginseng extract (WGE) was hydrolyzed with organic acids to increase the yield of ginsenoside Rg3 which has high bio-functional activities. The condition of hydrolysis by citric acid was studied to maximize a production of ginsenoside Rg3. The total content of ginsenoside Rg3 in WGE treated with 10% citric acid at 110°C for 1 h was 10-folds greater than that of commercial extract. The antitumor and antioxidant activities of WGE and the acid-hydrolysates were evaluated via an MTT assay and the DPPH method, respectively. At 1.0 mg/mL, hydrolysates inhibited the proliferation of AGS and Hep-2 cells by more than 90%, but did not inhibit their growth. It suggests that citric acid hydrolysis enhances the content of Rg3. In addition, the acid hydrolysates evidenced a free radical scavenging activity of 80% at a concentration of 4.0 mg/mL, while WGE exhibited only a 49% free radical scavenging activity at the same concentration.

Cytotoxicity of the white ginseng extract and red ginseng extract treated with partially purified β-glucosidase from Aspergillus usamii KCTC 6954

Red ginseng extract (RGE) and white ginseng extract (WGE) were treated with partially purified β-glucosidase to increase a production of minor ginsenosides. The enzyme produced from Aspergillus usamii KCTC 6954 was precipitated with (NH4)2SO4. Ginseng extracts were treated with a crude extract possessing β-glucosidase activity (1,089.2 μM/mL·min) at 60°C for 72 h. The results of HPLC showed that enzyme-treated RGE and enzymetreated WGE have increased amounts of minor ginsenosides compared to each controls implying that the ginsenoside Rb1 in WGE and RGE is converted enzymatically to Rd, F2, Rg3, and compound K. In cytotoxicity study, 2.5 mg/mL of RGE, 1.25 mg/mL of ERGE, and 5 mg/mL of WGE and EWGE were effective against the HepG2, AGS, and DLD-1, but HeLa and SK-MES-1 were not affected at any concentration. The results suggested that cytotoxicity of ginseng extracts treated with β-glucosidase were greater than that of each control against cancer cells.

Optimization of Enzymatic Treatment for Compound K Production from White Ginseng Extract by Response Surface Methodology

Ginsenoside 20-O-β-D glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (compound K), a minor ginsenoside, is not found in white raw ginseng, but has better bioavailability than the major ginsenosides in ginseng. Employing commercial enzyme packages for industrial applications, the optimum conditions for enzymatic transformation for the highest content of compound K was explored to enhance the health benefits of ginseng extract. Cytolase PCL 5 was selected from commercial enzyme packages nominated for high β-glucosidase activity. By response surface methodology, the optimal conditions were identified as 78 h of treatment at pH 4.3 at 55.4 °C for 2.068 mg/mL of compound K, showing good agreement with the experimental value.

동충하초 추출물과 백삼추출물 투여가 방사선을 조사한 생쥐 간에서의 glutathione함량에 미치는 영향

본 연구는 선형가속기의 고에너지 엑스선을 조사한 생쥐 간에 대한 백삼과 동충하초의 방사선방호효과를 연구하였다. ICR계 수컷생쥐 군에 7일 동안에 경구적으로 백삼(150 mg/kg/day)과 동충하초(200 mg/kg/day)를 각각 방사선조사 전에 투여했고 다른 생쥐 군에 5 Gy(1.01 Gy/min)의 방사선량으로 전신조사를 했고 대조군에 생리적 식염수 (0.1 ml)를 투여 한 후 간 조직에서 환원형 글루타치온(GSH)과 산화형 글루타치온(GSSG)의 함량을 각각 검사하였다. 그 결과 방사선조사군(Rad)보다 동충하초투여군(EF+Rad)과 백삼투여군(WG+Rad)에서 환원형 글루타치온 (GSH)함량이 유의성 있게 증가했으나 산화형 글루타치온(GSSG)의 함량은 유의성 있게 감소하였다. 총 환원형 글루타치온(total GSH)과 산화형 글루타치온(GSSG)의 함량 비율은 방사선조사군(Rad)보다 동충하초투여군(EF+Rad)과 백삼투여군(WG+Rad)에서 유의성 있게 감소하였다. The radioprotective effects of white ginseng and Entomopathogenic Fugi Extract on liver damage induced by X-ray were investigated. To one group of ICR male mice were given white ginseng(150 mg/kg/day for 7days, orally) and Entomopathogenic Fugi (200 mg/kg/day for 7days, orally) before X-ray irradiation. To another group were irradiated by 5 Gy(1.01 Gy/min) dose of X-ray. Contrast group were given with saline(0.1 ml). The levels of reduced(GSH) and oxidized(GSSG) glutathione in liver tissue were measured. The ratio of GSSG/total GSH was significantly decreased in the white ginseng and Entomopathogenic Fugi (200 mg/kg/day)(150 mg/kg/day) groups than irradiation group.