White Flower Color Research Articles

Unraveling the regulatory network of flower coloration in soybean: Insights into roles of GmMYBA3 and GmMYBR1

Anthocyanins play crucial roles in pollen protection and pollinator attraction in flowering plants. However, the mechanisms underlying flower color determination and whether floral anthocyanin regulators participate in other processes remain largely unresolved in soybeans (Glycine max). In this study, we investigated the genetic components and mechanisms governing anthocyanin biosynthesis in soybean flowers. Molecular and genetic studies have characterized two antagonistic regulators, the positive activator GmMYBA3 and the negative repressor GmMYBR1, that modulate the gene expression of anthocyanin biosynthesis in soybean flowers. Further findings revealed a regulatory interplay between GmMYBA3 and GmMYBR1 bridged by GmTT8a, highlighting the complexity of anthocyanin regulation in different soybean organs. Exploration of additional soybean cultivars demonstrated the universality of GmMYBA3 and GmMYBR1 in regulating floral anthocyanin biosynthesis- related genes, with GmF3′5′H identified as a crucial determinant of white flower color. This study provides a molecular mechanism underlying soybean flower color determination, paving the way for the molecular modification of soybean flowers to probably enhance their resistance to abiotic stresses and attractiveness to pollinators.

Exploration and identification of morphological characters of local Samosir shallot (Allium ascalonicum L.) accessions for sustainable agriculture

Samosir local shallots are a superior local resource commodity with a very distinctive taste and aroma, more pungent and fragrant, the color is redder and shiny. Currently, Samosir local shallots are experiencing a shortage therefore exploratory research is needed to obtain sources of quality planting material for sustainable agriculture. The objective of the research was to explore and identify the morphological characters of Samosir local shallots accessions at Bakti Raja District. The research method was carried out using a descriptive exploratory method. The results showed that the Samosir local shallots from all the accessions observed had cylindrical leaves with holes, with dark green leaf color, medium leaf size, low leaf density, umbrella-like flower shape, white flower color and purple/white bulb color. There is diversity in the shape of the bulb, namely Siunong-unong Julu accession, Simangulampe 1 and Simangulampe 2 have a globe tuber shape, while Simamora 1 accession has broad elliptic leaf shapes, Simamora 2, Simamora 3, Simamora 4 Marbun Tonga Dolok, Tipang 1 and Tipang 2 has a broad oval shape. Tipang 2 accession had the highest weight of 100 dry shallot bulbs, Simangulampe 1 and Simangulampe 2 accessions had the highest tuber diameter.

Registration of R16‐45 as a flood‐tolerant, high‐yielding soybean germplasm line

AbstractR16‐45 (Reg. no. GP‐526, PI 704118) is a high‐yielding soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] breeding line with flood tolerance at early reproductive stages released as germplasm by the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station in 2023. It is an F2 selection from the cross between the flood‐tolerant breeding line R07‐6669 and the high‐yielding Arkansas cultivar ‘UA 5612’. R16‐45 is a conventional (non‐genetically modified) soybean with a relative maturity of 5.6. Plants have determinate growth habit, white flower color, and buff hilum color. It has gray pubescence, tan pod wall at maturity, and yellow cotyledons with a dull yellow seed coat. R16‐45 showed high yield potential and broad adaptability across 17 environments in Arkansas and other southern states, with an average of 4145 kg ha−1 (95.3% of the checks’ mean). Six years of field evaluations for flooding tolerance showed that R16‐45 is consistently tolerant to 8‐to‐10‐day flooding stress at the R1/R2 growth stages (average flood damage score of 3.6, compared with 6.0 from the reference checks). In addition, R16‐45 is resistant to stem canker. Given substantial yield losses associated with flooding stress and stem canker, R16‐45 is a valuable germplasm source for public and private soybean breeding programs attempting to incorporate novel genetic diversity into their breeding pipeline.

Transcriptome analysis of flower colour reveals the correlation between SNP and differential expression genes in Phalaenopsis.

Phalaenopsis is an important ornamental plant that has great economic value in the world flower market as one of the most popular flower resources. To investigate the flower colour formation of Phalaenopsis at the transcription level, the genes involved in flower color formation were identified from RNA-seq in this study. In this study, white and purple petals of Phalaenopsis were collected and analyzed to obtained (1) differential expression genes (DEGs) between white and purple flower color and (2) the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) mutations and DEGs at the transcriptome level. The results indicated that a total of 1,175 DEGs were identified, and 718 and 457 of them were up- and down-regulated genes, respectively. Gene Ontology and pathway enrichment showed that the biosynthesis of the secondary metabolites pathway was key to color formation, and the expression of 12 crucial genes (C4H, CCoAOMT, F3'H, UA3'5'GT, PAL, 4CL, CCR, CAD, CALDH, bglx, SGTase, and E1.11.17) that are involved in the regulation of flower color in Phalaenopsis. This study reported the association between the SNP mutations and DEGs for color formation at RNA level, and provides a new insight to further investigate the gene expression and its relationship with genetic variants from RNA-seq data in other species.

Optimasi Produksi Tanaman Kedelai Edamame (Glicine max. (L) Merrill) Dengan Pengaturan Jarak Tanam Dan Pemberian Kompos

Soybean plants (Glycine max (L) Merrill) are annual plants, have white or purple flower colors and have various shapes and sizes for leaf and seed characters. Soybean production in Lampung province in 2015 was 9.82 thousand tons of dry beans, decreased by 3.96 thousand tons (28.76%) compared to 2014. Crop productivity is strongly influenced by the environment and the variety of plants planted, and the spacing is also closely related to the plant population. Spacing arrangement is very influential on plant growth and yield. One of the efforts that can be done to improve soil fertility is by giving compost. Compost is the final substance of a fermentation process of piles of garbage / plant litter and sometimes also includes animal carcasses. This study used a randomized block design with 3 replications, the treatment was given 2 factors, spacing and compost application. The purpose of this study was to increase the yield of edamame soybean optimally with the treatment of spacing and giving organic compost. The results showed that based on least significant different show that the best interaction between spacing planting and compost application on all variable is J2K2 (15cm x 40cm + 12 ton/ha). While the lowest treatment on the J0K0 (15cm x 20cm + 0 ton/ha).

The molecular regulators, pathways, and environmental impacts of white flowers

White flowers are an important element of natural beauty, although they are thought of colorless. Anthocyanins are the major compounds responsible for a variety of pigments in flowers. White flowers surely lack pigmented anthocyanins and other compounds, but there are regulatory mechanisms that hinder the deposition of color pigments in white flowers. Moreover, there are also some compounds that deposit to instigate white appearance and the genetic regulators control the biosynthesis and deposition of such compounds. Experts have shown that fluctuation in the equilibrium of FLS and DFR genes determines the degree of accumulation of anthocyanins and flavonols in the flowers, leading to different color patterns. The gene suppression techniques to suppress certain flavonoid pathway genes, such as CHS, or the insertion of DNA transposable elements into CHS produce white flower color in a number of species. Although pigments find wide application in the everyday life, white color does possess special importance in nature. Land plants use white flowers for reproductive viability during cold early spring to conserve energy and reduce nutrient costs, particularly in low density pollinations. Moreover, white fruit skins deposit specific amounts of anthocyanins and phenols with significant health benefits. This review, thus, deciphers the regulatory mechanisms for the absence of pigments in the white flowers and the deposition of special compounds causing white appearance and the benefits of white color in nature.

Evaluation of collective samples of oil flax by economic valuable and marking signs

Aim. Evaluation of promising collection samples of linseed for economically valuable and marker traits to identify the sources of these traits and their further use in the creation of new breeding material. Methods. Field, laboratory, measuring and weighing, mathematical and statistical. The research was conducted in 2019–2021 at the research fields of the Institute of Agriculture, located in the Fastiv district of the Kyiv region. Results. According to the results of the study and evaluation of 17 promising samples of oil flax of different ecological and geographical origin, the best genotypes were selected in the collection nursery for the main economic, valuable and marker characteristics. It was established that the majority of the collection samples belong to early ripening with a duration of the vegetation period of 85 days. The highest weight of 1000 seeds was found in varieties Evrika, Debut (8.74 and 8.44 g) and Vohni Dniprohesu (7.96 g). The maximum seed productivity was characterized by varieties Evrika (237 g/m2) and Legur (231 g/m2), which also had the largest number of seed pods per plant (17.1 pcs.). According to the total length of the stem, the samples were at the level of 41.8–63.3 cm, and according to the technical length of the fiber – 26.2–44.1 cm. The varieties Svitlozir and Aisberh, which have white flower color and pink and white, were characterized by contrasting marker features color of anthers, respectively. The varieties Debut (dark brown) and Svitlozir (yellow) differ in seed color. The average content of oil in the seeds for the entire sample of varieties was 47.7%. The highest oil content was determined for the Rucheek, Nebesny, Zaporizhzhya Bohatyr, and Vodohray samples (48.5–49.1%). According to the results of the analysis of the fatty acid composition of the flax samples, the best genotypes were selected based on the content of palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids. Conclusions. According to the results of the study, the best collection samples of oil flax were selected, which are sources of economically useful and marker traits: high seed productivity, increased oil content in seeds, early maturity, which will be involved in the hybridization program to create a new source breeding material with a given set of traits. Basic information on the economic and valuable characteristics of oilseed flax was obtained, which can be used in further scientific research.

Expression of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes during flower development in Lilium spp.

Sterility of hybrids produced from interspecific hybridization in lilies (Lilium, Liliaceae) is a great limitation in the breeding program, especially for Lilium longiflorum, which only has white-flowered cultivars. Because modification of flower colour in L. longiflorum by conventional breeding is limited by pre- and post-fertilization barriers, we think genetic modification could be used as an alternative in the future. For this, we need to understand what determines white colouration in L. longiflorum and other species and identify the molecular mechanisms regulating flower colour. In this study, we determined the accumulation of anthocyanins and related compounds in flower tissues during flower developmental stages in L. longiflorum cultivar ‘Lincoln’ and in the Oriental hybrid lily cultivars ‘Rialto’, ‘Perth’ and ‘Gran Tourismo’, respectively with white, pink and red flowers. Furthermore, the presence/absence and the expression of eight structural genes (CHSa, CHSb, CHIa, CHIb, F3H, F3’H, DFR, ANS) and three transcription factor genes (MYB12, MYB15, bHLH2) in flower tissues were investigated. Two structural genes (LlLinF3’H and LlLinDFR) and one transcription factor gene (LlLinbHLH2) were not detected in ‘Lincoln’ flowers. In ‘Rialto’, an amino acid substitution in the R2 repeat of LhRiaMYB12 which was previously reported to be responsible for the white flower colour is also found in the LhPerMYB12 of the pink ‘Perth’ flowers. Moreover, LhRiaDFR is present but not expressed in ‘Rialto’ flowers. Accumulation of cyanidin was observed in the flowers of ‘Perth’ and ‘Gran Tourismo’. High amounts of dihydrokaempferol accumulated in flowers of all four lily cultivars confirming the expression and functionality of early structural genes in the pathway. The elevated expression of the structural genes is strongly correlated with the expression of LhMYB12 and LhMYB15. This information can be used in the future to generate new L. longiflorum or Oriental lily hybrid cultivars with novel flower colours.

Loss of anthocyanidin synthase gene is associated with white flowers of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge. f. alba, a natural variant of S. miltiorrhiza.

SmANS deletion leads to white flower mutation in Salvia miltiorrhiza. SmANS deletion leads to white flower mutation in Salvia miltiorrhiza. Abstract Salvia miltiorrhiza is an essential traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with purple flowers, and S. miltiorrhiza Bge. f. alba is a unique intraspecific variation with white flowers. The molecular mechanism of flower color formation in S. miltiorrhiza will provide vital information for the variation and evolution. Here, we performed HPLC, transcriptomic, and re-sequencing analyses of purple-flowered S. miltiorrhiza line 'Zihua105' (ZH105) and white-flowered S. miltiorrhiza Bge. f. alba line 'Baihua18' (BH18). Delphinidin was the most anthocyanidin in ZH105, which become the main different between ZH105 vs. BH18 flowers. Transcriptome analysis revealed 299 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). SmANS, the anthocyanidin synthase gene in the down-stream anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway, was significantly expressed in ZH105 corollas, suggesting it might play a key role in white petal formation. Whole-genome re-sequencing revealed that a 6.75kb segment located on chromosome 5, which contains the complete sequence of the SmANS genes, was lost in BH18 and another S. miltiorrhiza Bge. f. alba line. In contrast, the other five purple-flowered S. miltiorrhiza lines both possessed this segment. Further molecular marker identification also confirmed that wild S. miltiorrhiza Bge. f. alba lines lost regions that contained a complete or important part of SmANS sequences. Subsequently, the research showed that the deletion mutant of SmANS genes resulted in the natural white flower color variant of S. miltiorrhiza.

Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Profiling Uncover the Underlying Mechanism of Color Differentiation in Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. Flowers.

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. (Chinese skullcap or Huang-qin) is an extremely crucial medicinal plant in the Labiate family, and the color of its flowers naturally appears purple. However, during the long-term cultivation of S. baicalensis, very few plants of S. baicalensis also present white and purple-red flower colors under the same ecological conditions. However, the complex metabolic and transcriptional networks underlying color formation in white, purple-red, and purple flowers of S. baicalensis remain largely unclarified. To gain an insight into this issue, we conducted transcriptome and metabolomic profiling to elucidate the anthocyanin synthesis metabolic pathway in the flowers of S. baicalensis, and to identify the differentially expressed candidate genes potentially involved in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins. The results showed that 15 anthocyanins were identified, among which cyanidin 3-rutinoside and delphin chloride were the primary anthocyanins, and accumulation was significantly related to the flower color changes of S. baicalensis. Furthermore, the down-regulation of SbDFR (Sb02g31040) reduced the anthocyanin levels in the flowers of S. baicalensis. The differential expression of the Sb3GT (Sb07g04780 and Sb01g72290) gene in purple and purple-red flowers affected anthocyanin accumulation, suggesting that anthocyanin levels were closely associated with the expression of SbDFR and Sb3GT, which play important roles in regulating the anthocyanin biosynthesis process of S. baicalensis flowers. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that transcription factors WRKY, bHLH, and NAC were also highly correlated with anthocyanin accumulation, especially for NAC35, which positively regulated SbDFR (Sb02g31040) gene expression and modulated anthocyanin biosynthesis in flower color variation of S. baicalensis. Overall, this study presents the first experimental evidence for the metabolomic and transcriptomic profiles of S. baicalensis in response to flower coloration, which provides a foundation for dynamic metabolic engineering and plant breeding, and to understand floral evolution in S. baicalensis plants.

Segregation of Flower and Pod Colour Inheritance in F2 and F3 Generations of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is a multi-purpose, underutilized legume crop mostly grown in dry tropical areas. It is one of the most important food legume crops, exhibits considerable morphological variability in its wild as well as cultivated forms. The present investigation was carried out in F 1 , F 2 and F 3 generations of four inter sub-specific crosses (RC101×Vyjayanthi, RC101× Vellayani jyothica, ACM 05-02×Ettumanoor local and ACM 05-07× Vyjayanthi) of cowpea to study the inheritance pattern of flower pod colour in F 2 and F 3 generations. Inheritance of flower colour and pod colour in cowpea has followed a qualitative pattern. Purple flower colour is dominant over white colour flower whereas, purple colour pod is partially dominant over green pod colour. A segregation ratio of 3 purple: 1 white flower colour in F2 generation of two crosses indicated that white flower colour is controlled by single recessive. Whereas segregation ratio of F2 1 green; 2 Light purple: 1 purple colour pod indicated that purple colour pod is partially dominant over green pod colour and it’s governed by single gene.

Inheritance of some morphological characters in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

The present investigation was undertaken to generate information on the inheritance of flower colour, leaflet size and pigmented stem in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Parents, F1’s, and F2’s of crosses Vijay x PKV-4, Digvijay x PKV-4 and BDNG-797 x PKV-4 were evaluated during rabi, 2018-19. The monogenic inheritance was confirmed for two traits, pink vs. white flower colour and pigmented vs. non pigmented stem pigmentation. Leaflet size, small vs. broad was controlled by duplicate gene action. The genetic inheritance of these morphological traits is essential for the selection of superior and desirable transgressive segregants for the genetic improvement of the crop. These results are of essential significance because these traits are used as visual markers in chickpea breeding for early recognition of the hybrid nature of plants. Key words: Chickpea, Inheritance, morphological traits.

How Can Flowers and Their Colors Promote Individuals' Physiological and Psychological States during the COVID-19 Lockdown?

The global spread of COVID-19 has disrupted the normality of people’s daily lives, leading the population to social distancing and isolation. The closure of green areas also affected the well-being of the individual during the COVID-19 pandemic. Viewing flowers is expected to have similar positive effects to viewing natural scenery. Therefore, this study investigates how white, red, and yellow flower colors affect individuals’ psychological and physiological well-being. The experiment was conducted in an office-like setting with 50 participants. Participants looked at each flower color for 3 min. Electroencephalograms (EEGs), heart rate variability, and skin conductivity were measured to evaluate physiological responses along with both the semantic differential questionnaire (SD) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) to assess psychological responses. EEGs showed that the mean values of alpha relative power in the prefrontal lobe were significantly higher when viewing yellow and red flowers vs. white flowers. Furthermore, heart rate variability revealed that viewing yellow and red flowers increased parasympathetic nerve activity significantly. After viewing the yellow and red flowers, the average results for each subscale of the POMS questionnaire improved. The vigor (V) subscale and overall mood status values were significantly improved. The results of the SD method revealed that viewing yellow and red flowers resulted in a significantly higher sense of relaxation, cheerfulness, and comfort than viewing white flowers.

Two loss‐of‐function alleles of the glutathione S‐transferase (GST) gene cause anthocyanin deficiency in flower and fruit skin of peach (Prunus persica)

SummaryFlower and fruit colors are important agronomic traits. To date, there is no forward genetic evidence that the glutathione S‐transferase (GST) gene is responsible for the white flower color in peach (Prunus persica). In this study, genetic analysis indicated that the white‐flower trait is monogenetic, is recessive to the non‐white allele, and shows pleiotropic effects with non‐white‐flowered types. The genetic locus underpinning this trait was mapped onto chromosome 3 between 0.421951 and 3.227115 Mb by using bulked segregant analysis in conjunction with whole‐genome sequencing, and was further mapped between 0 and 1.178149 Mb by using the backcross 1 (BC1) population. Finally, the locus was fine‐mapped within 535.974‐ and 552.027‐kb intervals by using 151 F2 individuals and 75 individuals from a BC1 self‐pollinated (BC1S1) population, respectively. Pp3G013600, encoding a GST that is known to transport anthocyanin, was identified within the mapping interval. The analysis of genome sequence data showed Pp3G013600 in white flowers has a 2‐bp insertion or a 5‐bp deletion in the third exon. These variants likely render the GST non‐functional because of early stop codons that reduce the protein length from 215 amino acids to 167 and 175 amino acids, respectively. Genetic markers based on these variants validated a complete correlation between the GST loss‐of‐function alleles and white flower in 128 peach accessions. This correlation was further confirmed by silencing of Pp3G013600 using virus‐induced gene silencing technology, which reduced anthocyanin accumulation in peach fruit. The new knowledge from this study is useful for designing peach breeding programs to generate cultivars with white flower and fruit skin.

The breeding system of Ornithopus sativus Brot. subsp. sativus

AbstractGenetic traits within Ornithopus sativus Brot. make it suitable for breeding as a forage legume in agriculture. The breeding system of O. sativus must be understood to stabilize valuable traits once developed. Hybridization between white‐flowered and pink‐flowered genotypes of O. sativus revealed the white flower colour to be inherited recessively to pink, while early flowering showed genetic dominance over late flowering (d = 0.5). The pink flower colour was always associated with red pigmentation on seedling hypocotyls, which provided a pragmatic aid in the selection process. Pollination of O. sativus is largely autogamous, but examination of hypocotyl colour of seedlings from white‐flowered trap plants placed among pink‐flowered plants in a sward indicated a xenogamic cross‐pollination rate of 25% is possible. This significant level of cross‐pollination revealed opportunities for breeding desirable traits within the species, while providing a warning that shifts in population structure could occur in response to selection pressure.

The bHLH transcription factor VfTT8 underlies zt2, the locus determining zero tannin content in faba bean (Vicia faba L.)

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is an important protein-rich fodder crop, which is widely cultivated in temperate areas. However, antinutritional compounds such as condensed tannins, limit the use of this protein source in monogastric feed formulations. Previous studies demonstrated that two recessive and complementary genes, zt1 and zt2, control absence of tannin and white flower colour in faba bean. An ortholog of the Medicago WD40 transcription factor TTG1 was reported to encode the zt1 phenotype, but the responsible gene for zt2 is still unknown. Here we used a candidate gene approach combined with linkage mapping, comparative genomics and gene expression to fine map the zt2 genomic region and to identify the regulatory gene controlling both traits. Seventy-two genes, including 23 MYB and bHLH regulatory genes predicted to be associated with anthocyanin expression together with WRKY proteins, were screened and genotyped in three mapping populations. The linkage groups constructed identified the regulatory gene, TRANSPARENT TESTA8 (TT8), encoding a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor, as the candidate for zt2. This finding was supported by qPCR analysis and further validated in different genetic backgrounds. Accordingly, VfTT8 was downregulated in white flowered types while showing high levels of expression in wild genotypes. Our results provide new insights on the regulatory mechanisms of tannin biosynthesis in faba bean and will facilitate the development of an ultimate zt2 diagnostic marker for the fast generation of new value-added cultivars free of tannins and with improved nutritional value.

Registration of ‘S14‐15138GT’ soybean as a high‐yielding RR1/STS cultivar with broad disease resistance and adaptation

Abstract‘S14‐15138GT’ (Reg. no. CV‐537, PI 693754) is a late maturity group IV (relative maturity 4.8) indeterminate high‐yielding soybean [Glycine max (L) Merr.] cultivar with glyphosate and sulfonylurea tolerance developed and released in 2017 by the University of Missouri–Fisher Delta Research Center soybean breeding program. S14‐15138GT is an F4 plant selection from the cross ‘S09‐10871’ × ‘S08‐9727RR1’. S14‐15138GT was tested in 83 environments across 11 states and showed high yield potential and wide adaptation in Missouri and other southern states. In the University of Missouri yield trials, S14‐15138GT yielded, on average, 110% of the tests mean across 19 locations in 4 yr (2015–2018). Plants of S14‐15138GT are 84 cm tall and have white flower color, tawny pubescence, and tan pod walls. On average, S14‐15138GT seed contains 406 g kg−1 protein and 221 g kg−1 oil on a dry seed weight basis. S14‐15138GT has a broad disease resistance package including resistance to soybean cyst nematode races 3 and 14 (HG Type 5.7 and Type 1.3.6.7), stem canker, frogeye leaf spot, sudden death syndrome, and phomopsis seed decay. In addition to its high yield potential, strong disease resistance package, and broad adaptation, S14‐15138GT is a suitable alternative for farmers who want to grow and save seed of glyphosate‐tolerant soybean cultivars.

Flower Colour Polymorphism, Pollination Modes, Breeding System and Gene Flow in Anemone coronaria.

The flower colour of Anemone coronaria (Ranunculaceae) is a genetically inherited trait. Such intra-specific flower colour polymorphism might be driven by pollinators, other non-pollinating agents, or by abiotic factors. We investigated the genetic relations among red, white and purple-blue flower colour morphs growing in 10 populations of A. coronaria in Israel, in relation to their breeding system, pollination modes, differential perception by bees and visitors’ behaviour. Flowers of these three morphs differed in their reflectance that could be perceived by bees. Honeybees, solitary bees and flies demonstrated only partial preferences for the different colour morphs. No spontaneous self-pollination was found; however, fruit set under nets, excluding insects but allowing wind pollination, was not significantly lower than that of natural free pollinated flowers, indicating a potential role of wind pollination. Anemone coronaria flowers were visited by various insects, honeybees and Andrena sp. preferred the white and purple-blue morphs, while the syrphid flies preferred the white flowers. Thus, visitor behaviour can only partially explain the evolution or maintenance of the colour polymorphism. No significant genetic differences were found among the populations or colour morphs. Wind pollination, causing random gene flow, may explain why no significant genetic divergence was found among all studied populations and their colour morphs. The existence of monomorphic red populations, along other polymorphic populations, might be explained by linked resistance to aridity and/or grazing.

Morphological diversity of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) M2 mutant populations induced by gamma radiation and diethyl sulfate

Induced mutagenesis is one of the most widely used breeding methods for rapidly increasing genetic diversity in many crops. This study used gamma radiation and diethyl sulfate (DES) to increase the genetic diversity in two faba bean genotypes. The genetic diversity assessment was based on 12 qualitative traits. The purpose of this study was to assess the genetic diversity in the M2 faba bean mutant populations and to select promising mutant. A total of 5271 M2 seeds generated from the M1 generation of two genotypes—Hassawi 2 and ILB4347—were used in this study. The seeds of M1 were obtained by gamma-ray exposure (25 and 50 Gy) and treatment of 0.01, 0.02, and 0.05% DES. A total of 4333 (82.2%) seeds germinated, of which 4102 plants survived and were screened for morphological diversity. A total of 36 mutant types are presented in this study. Determinate plant type, white flower color, white hilum, and black seed coat color were some of desirable traits that were considered for further generations. Multivariate-based principal component analyses showed that high genetic diversity was induced by gamma radiation and DES in faba bean mutant populations. This study revealed the potency of gamma radiation and DES on increasing genetic diversity and demonstrated the successful program of induced mutagenesis in the faba bean.

De Novo Assembled Transcriptome Analysis and Identification of Genic SSR Markers in Red-Flowered Strawberry.

Red-flowered strawberry is a new ornamental flower derived from intergeneric hybridization (Fragaria × Potentilla). To date, few molecular markers have been reported for this plant. RNA sequencing provides a relatively fast and low-cost approach for large-scale detection of simple sequence repeats (SSRs). In the present study, we profiled the transcriptome of red-flowered strawberry by Illumina HiSeq 2500 to identify SSRs related to petal color. Based on 2 million clean reads of red and white flowers from red-flowered strawberry hybrids, we assembled 91,835 unigenes with an average length of 717bp. After functional annotation and prediction, there were 47,058 unigenes; of these, 26,861 had a gene ontology annotation, with 14,264 SSR loci. Mononucleotide SSRs were the predominant repeat type (47.20%, n = 6724), followed by di- (32.50%, n = 4641), tri- (19.10%, n = 2729), tetra- (0.90%, n = 132), hexa- (0.2%, n = 21), and penta- (0.10%, n = 16) nucleotide repeats. The most frequent di-, tri-, and tetra-nucleotide repeats were AG/CT, AAG/CTT, and AAAG/CTTT, respectively. PCR amplification with 105 SSR primer pairs yielded four bands specific to red flowers, namely UgRFsr57622, UgRFsr94149, UgRFsr40142, and UgRFsr54608; corresponding 4 trait-specific markers were found to co-segregate with white and red flower color in hybrid population, demonstrating that the genic SSR marker is useful to discriminate between white and red flowers in strawberry. Markers to discriminate flower color in red-flowered strawberry will be useful for early selection of progeny and for breeding management.