Flour Research Articles

Effect of wheat roasting conditions and wheat type on short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral data of whole and milled wheat by ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis

ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis (ASCA) was used to investigate the effect of roasting and wheat type on shortwave-infrared (SWIR) spectra of whole wheat and flour through assessment of statistical significance and characterisation of the contributing spectral features. The full factorial experimental design included two wheat types, three roasting temperatures and three roasting frequencies. SWIR spectral images were collected from the two roasted wheat types and their two milled samples. Three ASCA models, one for each wheat conformation (kernel, whole wheat flour, white flour) were investigated. It was evidenced that all factors and interaction in the whole wheat flour model had a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on spectral data. Only the factor roasting frequency was not significant in white flour model and only the interaction between roasting frequency and wheat type was not significant for the kernel model. The main variations in the loading line plots were identified and characterised by chemical structural differences that occur within the sample. The effect of roasting frequency had a more adverse effect on protein stability, moisture evaporation, water soluble carbohydrates and aromatic amino acids, compared to roasting temperature. A Rapid Visco-Analyser (RVA) was used to further investigate difference in wheat type as almost all spectral data sets differed significantly. The most prominent difference between the two wheat types was observed as differences in amylase activity and presence of lipids. ASCA applied to SWIR whole wheat and flour spectral data effectively characterised the significant effect of roasting on wheat starch and protein structures.

INVESTIGATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF WAXI WHEAT FLOUR

The results of the research on the functional properties of waxy wheat flour, obtained from the spring waxy wheat grain of the Biskvitna variety, adapted for agro-climatic conditions of the Kharkiv region, in comparison with white wheat flour, are presented. It is found that waxy wheat flour contains 16.8% less raw gluten than the reference sample, the gluten is 18.8% less elastic and 21.4% more stretchy, has a light gray color and can be attributed to the II group of quality. Waxy wheat flour has a 1.8 times higher water-holding capacity, its starch begins to gelatinize at a lower temperature, while the maximum viscosity of the waxy wheat flour starch paste is almost 1.6 times higher than that of the reference sample. It is established that falling number of waxy wheat flour is only 68 s that more than 5 times lower than that one of wheat flour. The model dough system prepared from the waxy wheat flour has a 6.9% better lifting power in comparison to the system prepared from the wheat flour. Baking tests for sponge cakes, biscuits, fruitcakes and muffins with the substitution 25.0 to 75.0% of white flour to waxy wheat flour was performed. With an increasing of the dosage of waxy wheat flour a tendency of the increasing of the dough stickiness in all samples tested was observed. The baked goods tested were distinguished by good quality indicators, although in fruitcakes and muffins with a dosage of waxy wheat flour of more than 50.0%, the formation of large gas cells unevenly distributed in the crumb was noticed. Addition of 25.0% of waxy wheat flour causes an increase of the specific volume and porosity of sponge cakes by 11.1 and 9.3% respectively. With a further increase in the dosage of waxy wheat flour, the specific volume and porosity of the samples tested are verging to the reference sample. All samples of fruitcakes and muffins were not differ significantly in terms of specific volume and porosity. According to the results of the research conducted, it is suggested to use waxy wheat flour, obtained from the grain of Biskvitna variety, for the production of sponge cakes and biscuits in an amount of up to 75.0%, for fruitcakes and muffins - in an amount of up to 25.0% instead of wheat flour.

Characterization of bioprocessed white and red sorghum flours: Anti-nutritional and bioactive compounds, functional properties, molecular, and morphological features.

In the current investigation, white and red sorghum grains were exposed to bioprocessing techniques, such as soaking, germination, fermentation, and dual processing (both germination and fermentation). Germination and fermentation resulted in improved bioactive profile attributing to better antioxidant activity, whereas a reduction in antinutrient components was observed. On the other hand, soaking had decreased phenolic components and anti-nutritional factors attributing to their leaching in the soaking water. A significant change in the functional properties and color profile was also observed on bioprocessing. It also caused alterations in the morphological structure of the starch-protein matrix and molecular interactions of certain functional groups that reveal the synthesis of certain new bioactive compounds in the flour. The alterations in the bioprocessed flours occurred due to the structural breakdown attributing to the activity of hydrolytic enzymes that were activated during the processing treatments. Bioprocessing was also responsible for the degradation of the starch granules and unfolding of the protein matrix, thus altering the in vitro nutrient digestibility of the flours. Principal component analysis was used to authenticate the differences between different treatments and observations recorded. These bioprocessed flours could be potential ingredients for several valorized cereal products.

Strategies to increase the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of iron and zinc from cereal products.

Cereal products provide 50 % of iron and 30 % of zinc in the UK diet. However, despite having high content, the bioavailability of minerals from cereals is low. This review discusses strategies to increase mineral bioavailability from cereal-based foods. Iron and zinc are localised to specific tissue structures within cereals; however, the cell walls of these structures are resistant to digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract and therefore the bioaccessibility of these essential minerals from foods for absorption in the intestine is limited. In addition, minerals are stored in cereals bound to phytate, which is the main dietary inhibitor of mineral absorption. Recent research has focused on ways to enhance mineral bioavailability from cereals. Current strategies include disruption of plant cell walls to increase mineral release (bioaccessibility) during digestion; increasing the mineral:phytate ratio either by increasing the mineral content through conventional breeding and/or agronomic biofortification, or by reducing phytate levels; and genetic biofortification to increase the mineral content in the starchy endosperm, which is used to produce white wheat flour. While much of this work is at an early stage, there is potential for these strategies to lead to the development of cereal-based foods with enhanced nutritional qualities that could address the low mineral status in the UK and globally.

Type B trichothecenes in cakes and their interaction with matrix components

The study evaluated the detectable type B trichothecenes (TCTB) in cakes with different formulations in order to analyse their interaction with matrix components and the impact of daily exposure to these mycotoxins by cake consumption. A central composite design was carried out with the variables type of wheat flour (wholemeal and white flour) and ratios of milk, water and sugar. The TCTB reductions were correlated with the matrix components by principal component analysis (PCA) and the daily exposure was estimated in the condition that promoted the higher TCTB mitigation. The natural contamination of wheat flour, the ingredients dilution effect and the partial replacement of water by milk affected the TCTB levels in wholemeal cake (<1500 μg/kg) and white cake (<320 μg/kg). The PCA showed that the resistant starch was correlated with the TCTB detectable. The ingredients combination that promoted TCTB reductions of 68.9% in the white cake and 78.8% in the wholemeal cake, was the formulation that used 70 g of sugar and partial substitution of water by milk (20:20, mL/mL) in relation to 100 g of wheat flour. The daily exposure estimated by consumption of wholemeal cake was 3.5 times higher in comparison to white cake. The use of ingredients that lead to high resistant starch formation is a promising mitigation strategy.

Effects of flaxseed on the nutritional and sensory qualities of pan and Arabic flat breads

Flaxseed is a useful source of omega-3 fatty acid and many health-promoting phytochemicals. Baked products are extensively consumed in the Arabic countries. This study mainly aimed to improve the nutritional quality of pan and Arabic flat breads by adding whole and crushed flaxseed.&#x0D; The study objects were pan and Arabic flat breads wholegrain and white wheat flour with whole or crushed flaxseed at different amounts. The proximate composition, texture, color characteristics, and sensory analysis were evaluated by standard methods. &#x0D; The fat content increased in both the white wheat flour and in the wholegrain wheat flour pan breads with 8% of crushed flaxseed. The addition of 8% of crushed flaxseed to the white wheat flour bread also increased its specific loaf volume, while the addition of 8% of whole flaxseed significantly decreased the specific loaf volume of the wholegrain wheat flour bread. Crushed flaxseed did not affect the L* values, but significantly increased the a* values in the white wheat flour pan bread. Supplementing the white wheat flour pan bread with 8% of whole flaxseed decreased the compression force, thus indicating a softer texture. 8% of whole flaxseed significantly increased fat and protein contents of the white wheat and wholegrain wheat flour pan breads. Similar trends were observed for the Arabic breads, thus proving the enhancing effect of flaxseed on the nutritional quality of these baked products. The addition of crushed flaxseed to white wheat flour Arabic bread adversely affected its appearance and crust color, as well as significantly increased its ash, fat, protein, and dietary fiber contents. However, it did not have any adverse effect on the texture, flexibility, and flavor. &#x0D; Flaxseed grains in the amount of 8% can be recommended to produce baked products with good sensory and nutritional qualities.

Evaluation of Physico-Chemical and Microbiological Parameters of the Types of Wheat Flour Produced in Milling Company

Wheat flour is one of the most used ingredients in bakery products, based on its nutritional and technological properties. Also in recent years, with the increase in the variety of dough products, there has also been an increase in the types of wheat flour in a way that suits the needs of the market. This study aims to analyze the physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of some types of wheat flour produced by a milling company, which are used for different purposes, such as: white flour, brown flour, whole meal flour, etc. In total, 6 wheat flour samples of different types were analyzed for: moisture, ash, gluten, acidity, water activity and total microbiological load. The results showed that the moisture content is below 14.5 % for all samples. The range of ash content varies from 0.46-1.29% and is different based on the type of flour, because it represents the total amount of minerals present in wheat flour. Acidity is the most used parameter to determine storage conditions and all samples had a low value of 0.09-0.21 %.The wet gluten content of the flour samples varies between the range of 27.3-34.4 %, the highest value of gluten was detected in brown flour. From the microbiological analyzes carried out, we see that the wheat flour samples analyzed result in a low microbial load. Based on the results of the analyzed samples, all types of wheat flour produced by this company have good quality in terms of the analyzed parameters. Usually, the quality of the final product depends on the quality of the raw ingredients. So, the study of the quality of wheat flour in terms of physico-chemical and microbiological parameters also means a higher quality and safety of bakery products.

Effect of packaging type on the quality of premix white bread based on modified rice flour

White bread premix flour based on modified rice flour is a practical food product that is safe, nutritious and has functional value. However, loss of nutritional components may occur during storage. In this study, premix flour was packaged in PP plastic, HDPE plastic and aluminum foil, and stored under controlled conditions at 30°C temperature and 75% relative humidity for 28 days. The content of carbohydrates, protein, fat, ash and water is regularly assessed. Flour packaged using aluminum foil showed the smallest percentage loss of nutritional components, namely 0.8% loss of carbohydrates, 75% protein loss, 13% fat loss, 4% loss of ash content and 49% increase in water content. Meanwhile, the highest percentage of nutrient loss in HDPE packaged premix flour is 10% carbohydrate loss, 91% protein loss, 45% fat loss, 8% loss of ash content and 56% increase in water content. This shows that the product quality is better maintained by using aluminum foil packaging.

Effects of a 28-day feeding trial of grain-containing versus pulse-based diets on cardiac function, taurine levels and digestibility in domestic dogs.

In 2018, the US Food and Drug Administration reported a link between canine dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and grain-free diets. Evidence to support a link has emerged, but the specific ingredients responsible and the role of taurine or other causative factors remain unclear. We hypothesized dogs fed pulse-based, grain-free diets for 28 days will show decreased macronutrient digestibility, increased fecal bile acid excretion, and reduced plasma cystine, cysteine, methionine and taurine, causing sub-clinical cardiac or blood changes indicative of early DCM. Three diets were formulated using white rice flour (grain), whole lentil (grain-free), or wrinkled pea (grain-free) and compared to the pre-trial phase on a commercial grain-based diet. After 28 days of feeding each diet, the wrinkled pea diet impaired stroke volume and cardiac output, increased end-systolic ventricular diameter and increased plasma N-Terminal Pro-B-type Natriuretic Peptide (NT-ProBNP), albeit in a sub-clinical manner. Digestibility of some macronutrients and sulphur-containing amino acids, excluding taurine, also decreased with pulse-based compared to grain-based diets, likely due to higher fiber levels. Plasma taurine levels were unchanged; however, plasma methionine was significantly lower after feeding all test diets compared to the commercial diet. Overall, DCM-like changes observed with the wrinkled pea diet, but not lentil diet, after only 4 weeks in a breed not known to be susceptible support a link between pea-based diets and canine nutritionally-mediated DCM.

Fermented quinoa flour: Implications of fungal solid-state bioprocessing and drying on nutritional and antioxidant properties

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a pseudocereal rich in protein and excellent source of vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals. Developing new quinoa-based products would be a strategy to extend its consumption. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of solid-state fermentation with Pleurotus ostreatus and drying (hot-air at 50, 60 and 70 °C and lyophilization) on the nutritional and functional properties of fermented white and black quinoa flours. Changes in proximal composition revealed that white variety was more suitable for solid-state fermentation (SSF), according to the higher biomass production, higher increase of protein (2.11%) and insoluble fiber (7.82%) content. SSF was highly effective in phytic acid reduction (90%) regardless the variety. However, after fermentation, quinoa seeds presented reduced total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant capacity, especially on black variety. Nonetheless, hot-air drying improved the antioxidant properties (increased TPC and antioxidant capacity) and promoted changes in the phenolic profile. These changes were characterized by a release of gallic acid together with a notable reduction of vanillic, caffeic and ferulic acids, quercetin-3-glucoside and/or quercetin. A notable increase of the angiotensin converting enzyme-I inhibitory activity was found on the fermented flours mainly due to SSF.

Characteristics of Seasoning Powders from Nagara Bean Tempeh and Oyster Mushroom for Umami Enhancer to Reduce Salt-use

Aims: Nagara bean tempeh and oyster mushroom have high protein, and free glutamate can increase the umami effect. The formulation is needed to obtain the desired umami level.The research aimed to formulate seasoning powders of Nagara bean tempeh flour, white oyster mushroom flour, salt, and sugarto enhance the umami taste.&#x0D; Study Design: This research formulated seasoning powder using a randomized block design involving two treatment factors: 1) the concentration of salt, Nagarabean tempeh flour, and white oyster mushroom flour,and 2) the percentage of sugar.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Laboratory of analytical chemistry and industrial environment, Department of Agroindustrial Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, LambungMangkurat University, between June and November 2021.&#x0D; Methodology: The seasoning flavor formulation includes the proportion of salt 50% to 20 %, and the remaining composition is the ratio of Nagara bean tempeh flour and oyster mushroom flour 50: 50. The addition of sugar 0%, 25%, and 30% is also studied in this formulation to determine the effect of strengthening the umami taste. The seasoning powder was analyzed bychemical and sensory analysis.&#x0D; Results: Data analysis showed that the NaCl content in the seasoning powder decreased according to the reduced salt concentration in the seasoning formula. The proportions of salt: Nagara bean tempeh flour and oyster mushroom flour 20: 40: 40 produced the highest soluble protein content, total acid, and insoluble solids. Adding 25-30% sugar strengthened umami sensory test results more than the others.The results of salty taste scoring correlated with the proportion of salt in the formulation, where the salt ratio of 40%-50% was significantly not different.&#x0D; Conclusion: Seasoning powder formulation using salt, Nagara bean tempeh flour, and oyster mushroom flour did not yet providea strong umami effect. The umami effect should be enhanced by added sugar. Seasoning powder with slightly strong umami was obtained in the formulation of salt: Nagara bean tempeh flour: oyster mushroom flour by 20: 40: 40 with the sugar addition of 25%. According to the formula, salt consumption can be reduced by adding Nagara bean tempeh flour and white oyster mushroom flour in seasoning powder.

Study on the phenolic composition and antioxidant properties of white-, yellow-, and black-corn (Zea mays L.) foodstuffs.

Black corn possesses potent antioxidants, but these are mostly lost during processing. In this study we evaluated the antioxidant content of two different black ('Millo Corvo') corn-based products (i.e. tortillas and cookies) subject to moderate processing. A parallel study on white and yellow corns was carried out for comparison. Raw 'Millo Corvo' flour exhibited higher contents of phenolic acids, flavonoids, and particularly anthocyanins than white and yellow flours did. Phenolic acids decreased in cookies but did not in tortillas; flavonoids did not exhibit a clear tendency, and anthocyanins were always preserved. Antioxidant activity (AA) obtained for 'Millo Corvo' samples was twice as high as the value measured in white and yellow corns in terms of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity. The difference in AA was even more remarkable in terms of photochemiluminiscence antiradical activity. The conditions used during the cookie-making process enabled the natural antioxidant characteristics of 'Millo Corvo' to be preserved. However, the conditions applied to prepare tortillas resulted in major losses. The initial phenolics, in particular anthocyanins, and AA of 'Millo Corvo' flour can be maintained during processing as long as the conditions applied are 183 °C for 20 min in the absence of a high water content. Millo corvo products possess improved antioxidant characteristics compared with those from white and yellow corns. Millo corvo is a promising black corn type to prepare health-promoting corn-based foodstuffs. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The association of food ingredients in breakfast cereal products and fumonisins production: risks identification and predictions

Breakfast processed products are remarkably at risk of fungal contamination. This research surveyed the fumonisins concentration in different breakfast products and carried out in vitro experiments measuring fumonisins content in different substrates inoculated with Fusarium verticillioides. The pipeline started with the identification of combinations of ingredients for 58 breakfast products. Twenty-three core ingredients, seven nutritional components and production types were analyzed using a Pearson correlation, k-means clustering, and principal component analysis to show that no single factor is responsible for high fumonisins detection in processed cereals products. Consequently, decision tree regression was used as a means of determining and visualizing complex logical interactions between the same factors. We clustered the association of ingredients in low, medium, and high risk of fumonisin detection. The analysis showed that high fumonisins concentration is associated with those products that have high maize concentrations coupled especially with high sodium or rice. In an in vitro experiment, different media were prepared by mixing the ingredients in the proportion found in the first survey and by measuring fumonisins production by Fusarium verticillioides. Results showed that (1) fumonisins production by F. verticillioides is boosted by the synergistic effect of maize and highly ready carbohydrate content such as white flour; (2) a combination of maize > 26% (w/w), rice > 2.5% (w/w), and NaCl > 2.2% (w/w) led to high fumonisins production, while mono-ingredient products were more protective against fumonisins production. The observations in the in vitro experiments appeared to align with the decision tree model that an increase in ingredient complexity can lead to fumonisins production by Fusarium. However, more research is urgently needed to develop the area of predictive mycology based on the association of processing, ingredients, fungal development, and mycotoxins production.

Comparative compositions of grain of tritordeum, durum wheat and bread wheat grown in multi-environment trials

Three genotypes each of bread wheat, durum wheat and tritordeum were grown in randomized replicated field trials in Andalusia (Spain) for two years and wholemeal flours analysed for a range of components to identify differences in composition. The contents of all components that were determined varied widely between grain samples of the individual species and in most cases also overlapped between the three species. Nevertheless, statistically significant differences between the compositions of the three species were observed. Notably, tritordeum had significantly higher contents of protein, some minerals (magnesium and iron), total phenolics and methyl donors. Tritordeum also had higher levels of total amino acids (but not asparagine) and total sugars, including raffinose. By contrast, bread wheat and tritordeum had similar contents of the two major dietary fibre components in white flour, arabinoxylan and β-glucan, with significantly lower contents in durum wheat.

Physicochemical and functional properties of canaryseed (Phalaris canariensis L.) with and without spicules flour

AbstractBackground and ObjectiveGlabrous canaryseed flour is a novel ingridient with potential uses in the food industry. The objective of this study was to characterize and compare the physicochemical and functional properties of canaryseed (Phalaris canariensis L.) flours of the glabrous (without spicules) CDC Togo variety (whole and white flour, T and TW, respectively) and a traditional commercial variety (CW, white flour).FindingsScanning electron microscopy of the grains showed the glabrous nature of the T variety and the spicules present in the C variety. All the flours showed a high protein content (16.16%–25.49% dry basis [d.b.]), color tending to yellowish tones, and a predominant lipophilic behavior (oil‐holding capacity &gt; water‐holding capacity). Dehulling of the CDC Togo seeds significantly altered some of the flour's properties. Particle size decreased by 23%, and protein and oil contents were 43% and 26% higher, respectively. TW flour also had a significantly lower color saturation, water‐holding capacity, oil‐holding capacity, water‐absorption capacity, and organic molecule absorption capacity when compared to T flour.ConclusionsThe results indicate the potential use of canaryseed grains as a raw material for novel food products.Significance and NoveltyThis study presents novel data on the properties of canaryseed flour of the glabrous CDC Togo variety, about which no information has been found. As well as on canaryseed flour from a traditional (nonglabrous) variety.

Effect of substitution of wheat flour with chickpea flour on their physico-chemical characteristics

PurposeThe major objective of this research work was to evaluate various physico-chemical characteristics, such as, chemical composition, antioxidant capacity, objective color and texture profile analysis (TPA) of the wheat flour/chickpea flour (CF) blends, so that nutritious baked products could be consumed by the type-2 diabetic persons.Design/methodology/approachWholegrain wheat flour (WGF) and white wheat flour (WWF) were substituted with CF at 0 to 40% levels. These wheat flour/CF blends were analyzed for proximate composition, the prepared dough and baked breads were tested for objective color, antioxidant capacity as trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), malondialdehyde (MDA) and total phenolic content (TPC) and TPA.FindingsWGF had the highest TEAC (117.42 mM/100g) value, followed by WWF (73.98 mM/100g) and CF (60.67 mM/100g). TEAC, MDA and TPC values varied significantly among all the three flour samples.Research limitations/implicationsInclusion of whole chickpea (without dehulling) flour in such type of blends would be another interesting investigation during the future research studies.Practical implicationsThese research findings have a great potential for the production of these baked products for human consumption on an industrial scale.Social implicationsProduction of breads using wheat flour and CF blends would benefits the consumers.Originality/valueProduction of Arabic and pan breads using wheat flour and CF blends would, therefore, combine the benefits of both the needed proteins of plant origin and the health-promoting bioactive compounds, in a most sustainable way for the consumers.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF 15 WHITE FOODS ON HEALTH AND BRAIN AND THE ROLE OF MOBILES IN HEALTHY LIVING EDUCATION

In recent years there has been an increase in cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and attention deficit disorder. The causes of diseases and disorders are multifactorial. However, according to recent studies, special emphasis is placed on nutritional causes. Specific foods appear to cause damaging effects on health and the brain. In this paper, the negative results of 15 white foods in the diet are investigated, such as sugar, white flour and rice, meat, milk, but also flavor enhancers, sweeteners, alcohol, and others.

Acceptability of Balinese Boreh Powder With White Rice and Sandalwood Scrubs

The process of boreh preparation, which is quite time-consuming, and the use of white rice as scrubs, which is inconvenient, has caused traditional Balinese boreh to be rarely used, so it is necessary to innovate the dose form of boreh in the form of powder with white rice flour and sandalwood powder as scrubs. This study aims to determine the acceptability of Balinese boreh powder with white rice and sandalwood scrubs. The method included testing samples of boreh powder with and without sandalwood powder. The acceptability test was carried out on 30 respondents with the observation of preference, ease of use and feeling parameters. Each parameter has 2 questions. Finding shows that the highest acceptability preference parameter is found in formula 1 with each question getting a score of 46.80 and 47.20. In the parameter of ease of use, the highest acceptability is in the treatment of 15% rice flour and 15% sandalwood of 47.10 and 60.15. For the highest acceptability of feeling parameter is in the formula of 0% rice flour and 30% sandalwood of 50.23 and 51.63. In conclusion, the acceptability of the preference parameter is found in the treatment of 30% rice flour and 0% sandalwood, the ease of use parameter is in the treatment of 15% rice flour and 15% sandalwood, and the feeling parameter is in the treatment of 0% rice flour and 30% sandalwood.

Salt adopted in soaking solution controls the yield and starch digestion kinetics of intact pulse cotyledon cells

Intact cellular powders have gained attention as a functional ingredient due to their lower glycemic response and potential benefits in colon. The isolation of intact cells in the laboratory and pilot plant settings is mainly achieved through thermal treatment with or without the use of limited salts. However, the effects of salt type and concentration on cell porosity, and their impact on the enzymic hydrolysis of encapsulated macro-nutrients such as starch, have been overlooked. In this study, different salt-soaking solutions were used to isolate intact cotyledon cells from white kidney beans. The use of Na2CO3 and Na3PO4 soaking treatments, with high pH (11.5–12.7) and high amount of Na ion (0.1, 0.5 M), greatly improved the yield of cellular powder (49.6–55.5 %), due to the solubilization of pectin through β-elimination and ion exchange. Intact cell walls serve as a physical barrier, significantly reducing the susceptibility of cell to amylolysis when compared to white kidney bean flour and starch counterparts. However, the solubilization of pectin may facilitate enzyme access into the cells by enlarging cell wall permeability. These findings provide new insights into the processing optimization to improve the yield and nutritional value of intact pulse cotyledon cells as a functional food ingredient.

Bioprocessed Wholegrain Spelt Flour Improves the Quality and Physicochemical Characteristics of Wheat Bread.

In the present study, the partial substitution of common white wheat flour for a bread recipe with variously bioprocessed wholegrain spelt was investigated. The addition of 1% and pasteurised 5% "germinated + enzymatic treated" spelt flour to wheat flour significantly improved the specific volume of the bread, but their texture profile analysis and sensory evaluation were not satisfactory. A higher percentage of added bioprocessed spelt flour darkened the colour of the bread. Breads with the addition of more than 5% of bioprocessed spelt flour were unacceptable in terms of quality and sensory parameters. The highest extractable and bound individual phenolics were found in breads with 5% "germinated + fermented" spelt flour (GFB5) and 5% pasteurised "germinated + enzymatic treated" spelt flour (GEB5P). A strong positive correlation was determined between trans-ferulic acid and TPC and DPPH• radical scavenging activity. The GEB5P bread showed the highest increase in extractable and bound trans-ferulic acid content, by 320% and 137%, respectively, compared to the control bread. Principal component analysis showed differences between the control bread and enriched breads in terms of their quality, sensory and nutritional properties. Breads with 2.5% and 5% "germinated + fermented" spelt flour had the most acceptable rheological, technological and sensory characteristics, in addition to a substantial improvement in their antioxidant content.