White Cat Research Articles

Chinese strategies of experimental governance. The underlying forces influencing urban restructuring in the Pearl River Delta

Pragmatic Chinese ideological slogans like “groping for stones crossing the river”, “no matter if it’s a black cat or a white cat, as long as it catches mice it’s a good cat” became guiding principles for a multitude of experimental approaches to new developments in the realms of Chinese economic, political, socio-cultural, and physical urban transformation since the beginning of reform and opening up in the late 1970s. Today, these concepts find their daily expression in so-called conceded informality. This paper illuminates the characteristics of nowadays typical, Chinese decision- and policy-making processes in the field of urban restructuring, with a focus on the informal and experimental aspects of flexible conceptual frameworks.

Congenital and Prolonged Adult-Onset Deafness Cause Distinct Degradations in Neural ITD Coding with Bilateral Cochlear Implants

Bilateral cochlear implant (CI) users perform poorly on tasks involving interaural time differences (ITD), which are critical for sound localization and speech reception in noise by normal-hearing listeners. ITD perception with bilateral CI is influenced by age at onset of deafness and duration of deafness. We previously showed that ITD coding in the auditory midbrain is degraded in congenitally deaf white cats (DWC) compared to acutely deafened cats (ADC) with normal auditory development (Hancock et al., J. Neurosci, 30:14068). To determine the relative importance of early onset of deafness and prolonged duration of deafness for abnormal ITD coding in DWC, we recorded from single units in the inferior colliculus of cats deafened as adults 6 months prior to experimentation (long-term deafened cats, LTDC) and compared neural ITD coding between the three deafness models. The incidence of ITD-sensitive neurons was similar in both groups with normal auditory development (LTDC and ADC), but significantly diminished in DWC. In contrast, both groups that experienced prolonged deafness (LTDC and DWC) had broad distributions of best ITDs around the midline, unlike the more focused distributions biased toward contralateral-leading ITDs present in both ADC and normal-hearing animals. The lack of contralateral bias in LTDC and DWC results in reduced sensitivity to changes in ITD within the natural range. The finding that early onset of deafness more severely degrades neural ITD coding than prolonged duration of deafness argues for the importance of fitting deaf children with sound processors that provide reliable ITD cues at an early age.

Unilateral hearing during development: hemispheric specificity in plastic reorganizations

The present study investigates the hemispheric contributions of neuronal reorganization following early single-sided hearing (unilateral deafness). The experiments were performed on ten cats from our colony of deaf white cats. Two were identified in early hearing screening as unilaterally congenitally deaf. The remaining eight were bilaterally congenitally deaf, unilaterally implanted at different ages with a cochlear implant. Implanted animals were chronically stimulated using a single-channel portable signal processor for two to five months. Microelectrode recordings were performed at the primary auditory cortex under stimulation at the hearing and deaf ear with bilateral cochlear implants. Local field potentials (LFPs) were compared at the cortex ipsilateral and contralateral to the hearing ear. The focus of the study was on the morphology and the onset latency of the LFPs. With respect to morphology of LFPs, pronounced hemisphere-specific effects were observed. Morphology of amplitude-normalized LFPs for stimulation of the deaf and the hearing ear was similar for responses recorded at the same hemisphere. However, when comparisons were performed between the hemispheres, the morphology was more dissimilar even though the same ear was stimulated. This demonstrates hemispheric specificity of some cortical adaptations irrespective of the ear stimulated. The results suggest a specific adaptation process at the hemisphere ipsilateral to the hearing ear, involving specific (down-regulated inhibitory) mechanisms not found in the contralateral hemisphere. Finally, onset latencies revealed that the sensitive period for the cortex ipsilateral to the hearing ear is shorter than that for the contralateral cortex. Unilateral hearing experience leads to a functionally-asymmetric brain with different neuronal reorganizations and different sensitive periods involved.

Human Perceptions of Coat Color as an Indicator of Domestic Cat Personality

ABSTRACTAssociations between mammalian coat color and behavior have been investigated in a number of species, most notably the study of silver foxes by the Institute of Cytology and Genetics at the Russian Academy of Sciences. However, the few studies conducted regarding a potential relation between coat color and domestic cat personality have shown mixed results, even though many people believe that differently colored cats have distinct personalities. Understanding how humans might perceive personality in relation to coat color may have important ramifications regarding whether cats are relinquished to shelters or adopted from them. In order to assess human perceptions of differently colored cats, we conducted an anonymous, online survey, using a 7-point Likert scale and 10 terms describing personality traits that were chosen based on previous studies of animal personality. This survey examined how people assigned these given terms (active, aloof, bold, calm, friendly, intolerant, shy, stubborn, tolerant, and trainable) to five different colors of cats (orange, tricolored, white, black, and bi-colored). There were significant differences in how participants in this study chose to assign personality terms to differently colored cats. For example, participants (n = 189) were more likely to attribute the trait “friendliness” to orange cats, “intolerance” to tri-colored cats, and “aloofness” to white and tri-colored cats. No significant differences were found for “stubbornness” in any colors of cats. White cats were seen as less bold and active and more shy and calm than other colors of cats. While survey respondents stated that they placed more importance on personality than color when selecting a companion cat, there is some evidence that they believe the two qualities are linked. We anticipate our findings will be relevant to further study in domestic cat personality and to those who work in animal rescue, particularly in how shelters promote differently colored cats and educate potential adopters.

Synaptic plasticity in the medial superior olive of hearing, deaf, and cochlear‐implanted cats

The medial superior olive (MSO) is a key auditory brainstem structure that receives binaural inputs and is implicated in processing interaural time disparities used for sound localization. The deaf white cat, a proven model of congenital deafness, was used to examine how deafness and cochlear implantation affected the synaptic organization at this binaural center in the ascending auditory pathway. The patterns of axosomatic and axodendritic organization were determined for principal neurons from the MSO of hearing, deaf, and deaf cats with cochlear implants. The nature of the synapses was evaluated through electron microscopy, ultrastructure analysis of the synaptic vesicles, and immunohistochemistry. The results show that the proportion of inhibitory axosomatic terminals was significantly smaller in deaf animals when compared with hearing animals. However, after a period of electrical stimulation via cochlear implants the proportion of inhibitory inputs resembled that of hearing animals. Additionally, the excitatory axodendritic boutons of hearing cats were found to be significantly larger than those of deaf cats. Boutons of stimulated cats were significantly larger than the boutons in deaf cats, although not as large as in the hearing cats, indicating a partial recovery of excitatory inputs to MSO dendrites after stimulation. These results exemplify dynamic plasticity in the auditory brainstem and reveal that electrical stimulation through cochlear implants has a restorative effect on synaptic organization in the MSO.

Development of Brainstem-Evoked Responses in Congenital Auditory Deprivation

To compare the development of the auditory system in hearing and completely acoustically deprived animals, naive congenitally deaf white cats (CDCs) and hearing controls (HCs) were investigated at different developmental stages from birth till adulthood. The CDCs had no hearing experience before the acute experiment. In both groups of animals, responses to cochlear implant stimulation were acutely assessed. Electrically evoked auditory brainstem responses (E-ABRs) were recorded with monopolar stimulation at different current levels. CDCs demonstrated extensive development of E-ABRs, from first signs of responses at postnatal (p.n.) day 3 through appearance of all waves of brainstem response at day 8 p.n. to mature responses around day 90 p.n.. Wave I of E-ABRs could not be distinguished from the artifact in majority of CDCs, whereas in HCs, it was clearly separated from the stimulus artifact. Waves II, III, and IV demonstrated higher thresholds in CDCs, whereas this difference was not found for wave V. Amplitudes of wave III were significantly higher in HCs, whereas wave V amplitudes were significantly higher in CDCs. No differences in latencies were observed between the animal groups. These data demonstrate significant postnatal subcortical development in absence of hearing, and also divergent effects of deafness on early waves II–IV and wave V of the E-ABR.

Auditory neuroanatomy: a sound foundation for sound processing

Auditory neuroanatomy: a sound foundation for sound processing

Red Glove (review)

Reviewed by: Red Glove April Spisak Black, Holly . Red Glove. McElderry, 2011. [336p]. (The Curse Workers) Trade ed. ISBN 978-1-4424-0339-0 $17.99 E-book ed. ISBN 978-1-4424-0341-3 $9.99 Reviewed from galleys R Gr. 9-12. As readers learned in White Cat (BCCB 9/10), Cassel is a curse worker from a long family tradition of curse work (his particular talent is transforming things), and he's embroiled in some dangerous situations. Unsurprisingly, things still aren't going well for him. He still longs for Lila, the girl he adores, but ethics force him to try to keep away from her since his mother cursed her into artificially loving him back. He is also still trying to avoid being used by both the good and bad guys who want to use his transformative powers, and his world is further upended when his oldest brother is murdered. He has no chance to mourn his brother and doesn't even get far in sorting out his complicated feelings about his whole family before the FBI and the mob both track him down, demanding he help them or suffer dire consequences. While trying to survive, Cassel struggles mightily to reconcile the sometimes shockingly thin line between good and evil, and how often he crosses it. The playing out of the dynamic between Cassel, who'd love to be genuinely loved by Lila but can't accept her manipulated affection, is particularly creepy and disturbing. Readers will be happy to slip back into Black's elaborate, fascinating world of workers, curses, and the seeming ease with which everyone has learned to live in a world where no one, not even family, can be truly trusted, and this sequel offers satisfying additional glimpses into this nearly familiar but ultimately shockingly different world. [End Page 319] Copyright © 2011 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Neural Coding of Interaural Time Differences with Bilateral Cochlear Implants: Effects of Congenital Deafness

Human bilateral cochlear implant users do poorly on tasks involving interaural time differences (ITD), a cue that provides important benefits to the normal hearing, especially in challenging acoustic environments, yet the precision of neural ITD coding in acutely deafened, bilaterally implanted cats is essentially normal (Smith and Delgutte, 2007a). One explanation for this discrepancy is that the extended periods of binaural deprivation typically experienced by cochlear implant users degrades neural ITD sensitivity, by either impeding normal maturation of the neural circuitry or altering it later in life. To test this hypothesis, we recorded from single units in inferior colliculus of two groups of bilaterally implanted, anesthetized cats that contrast maximally in binaural experience: acutely deafened cats, which had normal binaural hearing until experimentation, and congenitally deaf white cats, which received no auditory inputs until the experiment. Rate responses of only half as many neurons showed significant ITD sensitivity to low-rate pulse trains in congenitally deaf cats compared with acutely deafened cats. For neurons that were ITD sensitive, ITD tuning was broader and best ITDs were more variable in congenitally deaf cats, leading to poorer ITD coding within the naturally occurring range. A signal detection model constrained by the observed physiology supports the idea that the degraded neural ITD coding resulting from deprivation of binaural experience contributes to poor ITD discrimination by human implantees.

The effect of cochlear-implant-mediated electrical stimulation on spiral ganglion cells in congenitally deaf white cats.

It has long been observed that loss of auditory receptor cells is associated with the progressive degeneration of spiral ganglion cells. Chronic electrical stimulation via cochlear implantation has been used in an attempt to slow the rate of degeneration in cats neonatally deafened by ototoxic agents but with mixed results. The present study examined this issue using white cats with a history of hereditary deafness as an alternative animal model. Nineteen cats provided new data for this study: four normal-hearing cats, seven congenitally deaf white cats, and eight congenitally deaf white cats with unilateral cochlear implants. Data from additional cats were collected from the literature. Electrical stimulation began at 3 to 4 or 6 to 7months after birth, and cats received stimulation for approximately 7h a day, 5days a week for 12weeks. Quantitative analysis of spiral ganglion cell counts, cell density, and cell body size showed no marked improvement between cochlear-implanted and congenitally deaf subjects. Average ganglion cell size from cochlear-implanted and congenitally deaf cats was statistically similar and smaller than that of normal-hearing cats. Cell density from cats with cochlear implants tended to decrease within the upper basal and middle cochlear turns in comparison to congenitally deaf cats but remained at congenitally deaf levels within the lower basal and apical cochlear turns. These results provide no evidence that chronic electrical stimulation enhances spiral ganglion cell survival, cell density, or cell size compared to that of unstimulated congenitally deaf cats. Regardless of ganglion neuron status, there is unambiguous restoration of auditory nerve synapses in the cochlear nucleus of these cats implanted at the earlier age.

Private label branding in China: what do US and Chinese students think?

PurposeThis exploratory research paper aims to contribute to the international marketing and brand development literature by demonstrating that significant cross‐national differences exist between Chinese and US university students regarding beliefs and perceptions of private label branding.Design/methodology/approachA total of 1,070 usable surveys were collected in the USA and 252 in China. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS data analysis software. The US student sample was collected from a comprehensive university located in the western USA. The Chinese sample was collected from a large university in Hefei. Hefei is the capital city of Anhui Province and a center for higher education.FindingsThe researchers compared US and Chinese university students in four areas: important attributes when purchasing food‐related products; beliefs about private label brands and price loyalty; perceptions about private label brands; and recognition of private label brands. US and Chinese respondents had statistically significant differences when addressing beliefs and perceptions concerning private label brands. Most notable is the difference concerning product pricing: US consumers indicate that price has a greater effect on the decision to purchase when compared with Chinese consumers. The data seem to indicate that Chinese consumers believe that private label food products may be of inferior quality compared to manufacture brands. Additionally, the data indicate indirectly that Chinese respondents either do not have an understanding of private label products, or that private label names are not recognized as such.Research limitations/implicationsOne limitation of this paper is that the data may indicate the non‐availability of private label products to Chinese consumers, rather than a perception that private label products are of lower quality. Additionally, this study documents perceptions regarding private label products, not why respondents perceive private label products in a certain way. A final limitation is that respondents are university students that, while they are excellent candidates, they probably do not currently hold the role of main food purchaser for their families. Future research would benefit from a broader demographic that includes non‐students as well as a larger number of private label categories. Comparing how marketers educated consumers regarding private label products in western markets, and how private label products are integrated into western markets could be used as a template for a successful rollout in Asian markets.Originality/valueWhile this study was exploratory in nature, and narrow in scope, the possibilities of long‐term research in private label branding in emerging market economies is quite exciting. Will the Chinese adopt private label products, as US consumers have done? To this end, a proverb from Deng Xiaoping seems appropriate: “Black cat or white cat: If it can catch mice, it's a good cat.” Whether a private label brand or a manufacture brand, it is up to marketers to help the Chinese consumers see value in both types of brand offerings.

Not all visual memories are created equal

Two experiments examined how well the long-term visual memories of objects that are encountered multiple times during visual search are updated. Participants searched for a target two or four times (e.g., white cat) among distractors that shared the target's colour, category, or were unrelated while their eye movements were recorded. Following the search, a surprise visual memory test was given. With additional object presentations, only target memory reliably improved; distractor memory was unaffected by the number of object presentations. Regression analyses using the eye movement variables as predictors indicated that number of object presentations predicted target memory with no additional impact of other viewing measures. In contrast, distractor memory was best predicted by the viewing pattern on the distractor objects. Finally, Experiment 2 showed that target memory was influenced by number of target object presentations, not number of searches for the target. Each of these experiments demonstrates visual memory differences between target and distractor objects and may provide insight into representational differences in visual memory.

Postnatal development of the endbulb of Held in congenitally deaf cats

The endbulbs of Held are formed by the ascending branches of myelinated auditory nerve fibers and represent one of the largest synaptic endings in the brain. Normally, these endings are highly branched and each can form up to 1000 dome-shaped synapses. The deaf white cat is a model of congenital deafness involving a type of cochleosaccular degeneration that mimics the Scheibe deformity in humans. Endbulbs of mature deaf white cats exhibit reduced branching, hypertrophy of postsynaptic densities (PSDs), and changes in synaptic vesicle density. Because cats are essentially deaf at birth, we sought to determine if the progression of brain abnormalities was linked in time to the failure of normal hearing development. The rationale was that the lack of sound-evoked activity would trigger pathologic change in deaf kittens. The cochleae of deaf cats did not exhibit abnormal morphology at birth. After the first postnatal week, however, the presence of a collapsed scala media signaled the difference between deaf and hearing cats. By working backwards in age, endbulbs of deaf cats expressed flattened and elongated PSDs and increased synaptic vesicle density as compared to normal endbulbs. These differences are present at birth in some white kittens, presaging deafness despite their normal cochlear histology. We speculate that hearing pathology is signaled by a perinatal loss of spontaneous bursting activity in auditory nerve fibers or perhaps by some factor released by hair cell synapses before obliteration of the organ of Corti.

Feline squamous cell carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a common tumour of cats, accounting for 11.4-15% of all feline skin tumours. Cutaneous SCC arises on lightly or unpigmented areas of skin, often hairless areas, such as nasal planum, eyelids and pinnae (Fig.1). Another common site is the oral cavity, with reports of SCC also identified in the nasal sinuses, larynx and trachea. White cats are reported to have 13.4 times the risk of developing SCC compared to cats of other colours (Fig. 2). The disease in its common locations is usually locally invasive and rarely metastasises. More unusual anatomical locations may have more malignant biologic behaviour. A recent case report identified multiple distant site (skeletal and cardiac) SCC in a cat, with lung as the likely primary site.

Class Bases of Chinese “Marxisms” Today*

Class Bases of Chinese “Marxisms” TodayRobert WeilRobert WeilAuthor of Red Cat, White Cat: China and the Contradictions of “Market Socialism” (Monthly Review Press, 1996), and many articles and papers on Chinese political economy and class relations. A lifelong civil rights, labor, environmental and international solidarity organizer, he has been Visiting Assistant Professor and Lecturer at the University of California Santa Cruz, San Jose State University, and other colleges. He is a Senior Fellow at the Oakland Institute.[email protected]Search for more papers by this authorPublished Online:April 2009https://doi.org/10.1521/siso.2009.73.2.221PDFPDF PLUS ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations About Previous article Next article FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Volume 73Issue 2Apr 2009 Information© 2009 S & S Quarterly, Inc.PDF download

Unilateral and Bilateral Congenital Sensorineural Deafness in Client‐Owned Pure‐Breed White Cats

Congenital sensorineural deafness has been reported frequently in experimental mixed-breed white cats but there is a paucity of data on occurrence of deafness in client-owned pure-breed white cats. To describe hearing status in client-owned pure-breed white cats. Eighty-four pure-breed client-owned cats with white coat color of 10 registered breeds presented for routine hearing evaluation before breeding (1995-2008). Hearing was assessed by click-evoked brainstem auditory evoked response. Overall deafness prevalence was 20.2%; 9 cats (10.7%) were bilaterally deaf and 8 cats (9.5%) were unilaterally deaf. There was no association between sex and deafness status (P= .85). Deafness status was associated with iris color (P= .04). Congenital sensorineural deafness frequently occurs in pure-breed cats with white coat color. Unilateral sensorineural deafness was as common as bilateral deafness.

Black cat, white cat: a pragmatic and collaborative approach to evidence‐based social work in China

Current thinking suggests that evidence‐based practice (EBP) is a key to unlocking the potential for social work development in mainland China. But Chinese social workers may be confronted by the challenges of EBP in using research evidence, exercising expert judgment, as well as considering client characteristics, as social work is a relatively new enterprise in China's unique social–economic–political context. There is little indigenous research evidence for Chinese social workers to refer to. There are few experienced social workers and researchers since social work practice, education and research were reinstated only in the late 1980s. Mainland Chinese may not be aware of what social workers can do and may prefer authority‐based practice. This paper aims to first review the definition of EBP, followed by a discussion of the challenges and opportunities in applying EBP to social work in China. It then highlights the usefulness of collaboration between academics, practitioners, and clients in implementing EBP. A recent research project on ex‐offenders and their family members in Singapore is used to illustrate the feasibility of collaboration between academia and the field. 当前的理论认为， 以证据为本的实践是一个解开中国大陆社会工作重新发展潜能的钥匙。 然而， 中国社会工作者在运用研究证据、行使专业判断及考虑服务使用者的特质时， 或许会遇到实证为本的挑战， 因为在中国独特的社会、经济及政治环境下， 社会工作是一个相对地新兴的专业， 没有太多本土化的研究证据可供中国社会工作者参考。 同时， 因为社会工作实践、教育及研究在1980年代末期才得以复苏， 也没有太多富有经验的社会工作者及研究人员。 中国内地民众或许未曾意识到社会工作者能够做什么， 宁可依据以权威为本的实践。 本文的主要目的首先是检视以证据为本的实践的定义， 然后讨论在中国应用以证据为本的实践的挑战及机遇。 文章突出了在引用以证据为本的实践时， 学术界、前线工作者及服务使用者相互合作的益处。 藉一项在新加坡进行的前刑事犯人及其家人的近期研究成果， 以说明学术界与社会工作界合作的可行性。

63 PRODUCTION OF CLONED TRANSGENIC RED CATS

A method for engineering and producing genetically modified cats is important for generating biomedical models of human diseases. Because the feline gene map displays a higher level of systemic conservation with the human genome than with rodents or other laboratory mammals, cats may offer a more appropriate model in which to study potential therapies for human diseases. A second point of application is the production of transgenic cats, genetically engineered designer pets with favorable attributes, such as allergen-free cats. Mature oocytes from superovulated cat ovaries were collected. Donor fibroblasts were obtained from an ear-skin biopsy of a white maleTurkish Angora cat, cultured for one to two passages, and then subjected to transduction with a retrovirus vector designed to transfer and express the red fluorescent protein (RFP) gene. Single donor cells emitting red fluorescence were selected under an inverted microscope equipped with an RFP filter set. For somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), denuded oocytes were treated with 0.2 µg m L–1 demecolcine for 1 h, and the protruding first polar body and chromatin plate were removed by micromanipulation. A single donor cell was transferred into each enucleated oocyte. In total, 176 RFP cloned embryos were transferred into 11 surrogate mothers (mean = 16 � 7.5 per recipient). Three of eleven surrogate mothers (S) were successfully impregnated (27.3%). Surrogate S-2 delivered one liveborn and one stillborn kitten at 65 days of gestation while S-3 delivered one liveborn kitten at 66 days of gestation. Microsatellite analysis revealed that all kittens were genetically identical to the donor cat. Presence of the RFP gene in the transgenic cat genome was confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analyses. Whole body red fluorescence was detected 60 days after birth in the liveborn transgenic (TG) cats, but not in the non-TG cats under excitation emission filter sets. The expression pattern of the RFP transgene was determined in several tissues taken from TG stillborn and non-TG cats. Although expression in the heart was detected more weakly than in other organs, red fluorescence was present in all tissue samples tested, but not in those from the non-TG cat. This is the first report of the successful production of a cloned transgenic cat expressing an exogenous gene. Our nuclear transfer procedure using genetically modified somatic cells would be useful for the efficient production of transgenic cats. The application of the SCNT procedure to produce genetically modified cats would be valuable for biomedical modeling of human disease, as well as for the production of designer pets. This work was supported by a Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) grant funded by the Korean government (MOST) (grant # M10525010001-05N2501-00110).

Black or white cat? Ideology meets reality in healthcare finance and provision

Despite the intense debates over state or private sector dominance in healthcare finance and provision, there are no clear winners. Failed models exist on either end of the ideological spectrum and no country in the world has one that is purely public or purely private. Neither does a perfect public–private mix exist; all solutions are, at best, partial. The important questions are whether or not the political choices made are affordable, sustainable and equitable. When ideology meets reality, it boils down to what trade-offs different societies at different stages of economic development are willing to make.

Effect of serum starvation on the efficiency of nuclear transfer using odd-eyed white cat fibroblasts

In the present study, we compared in vitro and in vivo development of nuclear transfer (NT) embryos derived from serum-starved or non-serum-starved odd-eyed cat skin fibroblast cells. Flow cytometry analyses revealed that a higher percentage of cells were in the G0/G1 phase after serum starvation (89.3%) as compared with non-serum-starved cells (73.8%, P < 0.05). Frequency of cleavage and development to the blastocyst stage was not different between the serum-starved or non-serum-starved treatment group, 67.9 and 12.5% versus 73.0 and 10.2%, respectively ( P > 0.05). After transfer of two to four-cell NT embryos derived from starved and non-starved fibroblasts, three of nine (33%) and one of nine (11%) recipients delivered three live male (plus, one dead) and two live male kittens, respectively. Of the five live-cloned kittens, one died from diarrhea at 3 weeks of age and the other four kittens are growing at a normal rate. The cloned kittens are blue-eyed and have functional auditory systems, including clones of the odd-eyed deaf Turkish Angora cat. Subsequent DNA analysis of nine-cat specific microsatellite loci confirmed that all of the cloned kittens were identical to the odd-eyed donor male, but a point mutation occurred in the dead fetus at the FCA 290 marker.