White American Children Research Articles

Esotropia and Exotropia Preferred Practice Pattern®

Esotropia and Exotropia Preferred Practice Pattern®

Developing cognitions about race: White 5‐ to 10‐year‐olds' perceptions of hardship and pain

AbstractWhite American adults assume that Blacks feel less pain than do Whites, but only if they believe that Blacks have faced greater economic hardship than Whites. The current study investigates when in development children first recognize racial group differences in economic hardship and examines whether perceptions of hardship inform children's racial bias in pain perception. Five‐ to 10‐year‐olds (N = 178) guessed which of two items (low versus high value) belonged to a Black and a White child and rated the amount of pain a Black and a White child would feel in 10 painful situations. By age 5, White American children attributed lower‐value possessions to Blacks than Whites, indicating a recognition of racial group differences in economic hardship. The results also replicated the emergence of a racial bias in pain perception between 5 and 10. However, unlike adults', children's perceptions of hardship do not account for racial bias in pain perception.

Relationship Between Meeting 24-Hour Movement Guidelines and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Children.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between adherence to pediatric 24-hour movement guidelines (moderate to vigorous physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep) and cardiometabolic risk factors. The sample included 357 white and African American children aged 5-18 years. Physical activity, television viewing, and sleep duration were measured using questionnaires, and the 24-hour movement guidelines were defined as ≥60minutes per day of moderate to vigorous physical activity on ≥5days per week, ≤ 2hours per day of television, and sleeping 9-11hours per night (ages 5-13 y) or 8-10hours per night (ages 14-18y). Waist circumference, body fat, abdominal visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue, blood pressure, fasting triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and glucose were measured in a clinical setting. A total of 26.9% of the sample met none of the guidelines, whereas 36.4%, 28.3%, and 8.4% of the sample met 1, 2, or all 3 guidelines, respectively. There were significant associations between the number of guidelines met and body mass index, visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue, triglycerides, and glucose. There were no associations with blood pressure or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Meeting more components of the 24-hour movement guidelines was associated with lower levels of obesity and several cardiometabolic risk factors. Future efforts should consider novel strategies to simultaneously improve physical activity, sedentary time, and sleep in children.

"American=English Speaker" Before "American=White": The Development of Children's Reasoning About Nationality.

Adults implicitly judge people from certain social backgrounds as more "American" than others. This study tests the development of children's reasoning about nationality and social categories. Children across cultures (White and Korean American children in the United States, Korean children in South Korea) judged the nationality of individuals varying in race and language. Across cultures, 5- to 6-year-old children (N=100) categorized English speakers as "American" and Korean speakers as "Korean" regardless of race, suggesting that young children prioritize language over race when thinking about nationality. Nine- and 10-year-olds (N=181) attended to language and race and their nationality judgments varied across cultures. These results suggest that associations between nationality and social category membership emerge early in life and are shaped by cultural context.

Examining the potential for racial disparity in out-of-home placement decisions: A qualitative matched-pair study

This community-based participatory research project was initiated following a charge from the Minnesota Legislature concerning the disproportionate representation of African American children in out-of-home care. The goal was to evaluate the impact of client race on child welfare worker decision-making and case outcomes and determine the potential for bias in decision-making. This report describes a detailed qualitative follow-up analysis of the data gathered for the quantitative inquiry. Cases of non-Hispanic, non-immigrant, white and African American children substantiated for child neglect in 2001 were identified from four Minnesota counties and followed until case closure or for at least 18months. Cases were matched on type of neglect, gender, age group, and county. Cases of 81 pairs of black and white children were qualitatively coded and analyzed to identify possible race-linked differences in case characteristics, and which factors, including race, were most predictive of out-of-home placement decisions. In large part, the relevant facts of the case and risk to the child were clearly the driving force behind decisions made. However, models indicated that differences existed between race and age groups in incidence of certain case characteristics and in case process and outcomes, despite similar overall rates of referral for ongoing placement between races. Implications for future research are discussed, particularly the benefits of qualitative and quantitative data used in concert to contextualize findings.

Income Inequality and US Children's Secondhand Smoke Exposure: Distinct Associations by Race-Ethnicity.

Prior studies have found considerable racial and ethnic disparities in secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure. Although a number of individual-level determinants of this disparity have been identified, contextual determinants of racial and ethnic disparities in SHS exposure remain unexamined. The objective of this study was to examine disparities in serum cotinine in relation to area-level income inequality among 14 649 children from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. We fit log-normal regression models to examine disparities in serum cotinine in relation to Metropolitan Statistical Areas level income inequality among 14 649 nonsmoking children aged 3-15 from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1999-2012). Non-Hispanic black children had significantly lower serum cotinine than non-Hispanic white children (-0.26; 95% CI: -0.38, -0.15) in low income inequality areas, but this difference was attenuated in areas with high income inequality (0.01; 95% CI: -0.16, 0.18). Serum cotinine declined for non-Hispanic white and Mexican American children with increasing income inequality. Serum cotinine did not change as a function of the level of income inequality among non-Hispanic black children. We have found evidence of differential associations between SHS exposure and income inequality by race and ethnicity. Further examination of environments which engender SHS exposure among children across various racial/ethnic subgroups can foster a better understanding of how area-level income inequality relates to health outcomes such as levels of SHS exposure and how those associations differ by race/ethnicity. In the United States, the association between children's risk of SHS exposure and income inequality is modified by race/ethnicity in a manner that is inconsistent with theories of income inequality. In overall analysis this association appears to be as predicted by theory. However, race-specific analyses reveal that higher levels of income inequality are associated with lower levels of SHS exposure among white children, while levels of SHS exposure among non-Hispanic black children are largely invariant to area-level income inequality. Future examination of the link between income inequality and smoking-related health outcomes should consider differential associations across racial and ethnic subpopulations.

School Segregation, Charter Schools, and Access to Quality Education

ABSTRACT:Race, class, neighborhood, and school quality are all highly interrelated in the U.S. educational system. In the last decade a new factor has come into play, the option of attending a charter school. We offer a comprehensive analysis of the disparities among public schools attended by white, black, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American children in 2010–2011, including all districts in which charter schools existed. We compare schools in terms of poverty concentration, racial composition, and standardized test scores, and we also examine how attending a charter or non-charter school affects these differences. Black and Hispanic (and to a lesser extent Native American and Asian) students attend elementary and high schools with higher rates of poverty than white students. Especially for whites and Asians, attending a charter school means lower exposure to poverty. Children’s own race and the poverty and charter status of their schools affect the test scores and racial isolation of schools that children attend in complex combinations. Most intriguing, attending a charter school means attending a better-performing school in high-poverty areas but a lower performing school in low-poverty areas. Yet even in the best case the positive effect of attending a charter school only slightly offsets the disadvantages of black and Hispanic students.

Race as a Moderator of Associations Between Spanking and Child Outcomes.

The cultural normativeness perspective argues that parenting practices such as spanking are more beneficial for children when they occur in cultural groups within which they are normative. Research on this issue in the United States has focused on race as a marker of culture, and findings have been mixed. The present study presents meta-analyses of five studies that reported effect sizes separately for White (n = 11,814) and Black (n = 3,065) American children (5 to 14 years of age). Mean weighted effect sizes for both groups indicated statistically significant associations with detrimental outcomes; they were not statistically significantly different from one another. Contrary to the cultural normativeness perspective, these results demonstrate that spanking is similarly associated with detrimental outcomes for White and Black children in the United States.

Protocol for a Systematic Review: Targeted School‐Based Interventions for Improving Reading and Mathematics for Students With or At‐Risk of Academic Difficulties in Grade 7 to 12: A Systematic Review

Protocol for a Systematic Review: Targeted School‐Based Interventions for Improving Reading and Mathematics for Students With or At‐Risk of Academic Difficulties in Grade 7 to 12: A Systematic Review

Pediatric Intensive Care Unit Mortality Among Latino Children Before and After a Multilevel Health Care Delivery Intervention

Research on health equity has focused on documenting health care disparities or understanding factors leading to disparities, but limited efforts have focused on reducing health care disparities in children. Latino children have increased prevalence of acute and chronic conditions; they have limited access and other barriers to high-quality health care, including intensive care. To determine whether pediatric intensive care unit mortality can be reduced by a multilevel health care delivery intervention. Observational study of factors associated with pediatric intensive care unit mortality at a tertiary care metropolitan children's hospital in Memphis, Tennessee. Participants were children younger than 18 years discharged from the pediatric intensive care unit during the 3-year preintervention period of 2007 to 2009 (n = 3891) and 3-year postintervention period of 2010 to 2012 (n = 4179). Multilevel health care intervention to address the increased odds of mortality among Latino children. The odds of mortality were analyzed over the 3-year preintervention period (2007-2009) using multivariable logistic regressions to control for age, sex, race/ethnicity, severity of illness, major diagnostic categories, diagnosed infections, and insurance status. Data from the postintervention period (2010-2012) were analyzed similarly to measure the effect of changes in health care delivery. Unadjusted mortality rates for white, African American, and Latino children in 2007 to 2009 were 3.3%, 3.3%, and 8.6%, respectively. After controlling for covariates, no differences in the odds of mortality were observed between white children and African American children (odds ratio [OR], 1.0; 95% CI, 0.6-1.7; P = .97), but Latino children had 3.7-fold (95% CI, 1.8-7.5; P < .001) higher odds of mortality. A multilevel and multidisciplinary intervention was launched to address these differences. In the postintervention period, unadjusted mortality rates for white, African American, and Latino children were 3.6%, 3.2%, and 4.0%, respectively, with no differences observed after adjustment for covariates (OR, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.2-2.1; P = .49). The odds of mortality decreased between the preintervention period and postintervention period for Latino children (OR, 0.24; 95% CI, 0.06-0.88; P = .03) but remained unchanged for white and African American children (OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.73-1.43; P = .90). Latino children had higher odds of mortality, even after controlling for age, sex, severity of illness, insurance status, and other covariates. These differences disappeared after culturally and linguistically sensitive interventions at multiple levels. Local multilevel interventions can reduce the effect of health care inequities on clinical outcomes, without requiring major changes in health care policy.

Asthma, Allergic Rhinitis, and Sleep Problems in Urban Children

In this study, we examine the association of asthma (asthma symptoms, asthma control, lung function) and sleep problems in a group of urban children. The role of allergic rhinitis (AR), a comorbid condition of asthma, on children's sleep problems is also examined. Finally, we investigate whether sleep hygiene moderates the association between asthma and sleep problems, and whether there are differences in these associations based on ethnic background. Non-Latino White, Latino, and African American urban children with asthma (n = 195) ages 7-9 (47% female) and their primary caregivers participated in a baseline visit involving interview-based questionnaires on demographics, asthma and rhinitis control, and caregiver report of children's sleep problems and sleep hygiene. Children and their caregivers participated in a clinical evaluation of asthma and AR, followed by a month monitoring period of children's asthma using objective and subjective methods. Total sleep problem scores were higher in children of the sample who were from African American and Latino backgrounds, compared to non-Latino white children. Poor asthma control was predictive of higher levels of sleep problems in the entire sample. Poorer AR control also was related to more sleep problems, over and above children's asthma in the sample. This association was more robust in non-Latino white children. Poor sleep hygiene heightened the association between poor asthma control and sleep problems in the entire sample and in African American children. Multidisciplinary interventions integrating the co-management of asthma, AR, and the effects of both illnesses on children's sleep, need to be developed and tailored to children and their families' ethnic background.

Layers of Inequality: Power, Policy, and Health

The article presents an editorial in which the authors argue that accumulated stress resulting from income inequality, racism, and other disparities could account for health declines and relatively high infant mortality rates in the U.S. as opposed to other industrialized nations of January 2014. Topics include public services for disadvantaged groups and infant mortality rates among white American and African American children.

Cardiometabolic Risk Factors and Fat Distribution in Children and Adolescents

To determine if cardiometabolic risk factors have differential associations with the proportion of fat distributed in the trunk, leg, and arm, in White and African American children and adolescents. The sample included 391 White and African American 5- to 18 year-olds. Total and regional (trunk, leg, and arm) fat were measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Resting blood pressure and fasting triglycerides, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), glucose, insulin, and C-reactive protein were measured in a clinical setting. Insulin resistance was determined with the homeostatic model of insulin resistance. Multivariable linear and logistic regression models were used to examine associations between each cardiometabolic risk factor and proportion of fat (trunk, leg, or arm fat divided by whole body fat), with whole body fat, age, sex, race, sexual maturity status, and self-reported physical activity as covariates. Higher odds of low HDL-C, high triglycerides, insulin resistance, and high C-reactive protein were associated with % trunk fat. Lower odds of low HDL-C, high triglycerides, and insulin resistance were associated with % leg fat. No cardiometabolic risk factor was associated with % arm fat. Cardiometabolic risk factors in children and adolescents were attenuated when a larger proportion of fat was distributed in the leg. The clinical assessment of children's fat distribution may be useful in determining cardiometabolic risk.

A Review of the Research: Common Core State Standards for Improving Rural Children’s School Readiness

Although a plethora of research focuses on economically at-risk preschool children in general across the United States, little can be found that investigates methods for improving rural children’s academic outcomes. This review of research is intended to provide a contextual understanding of the background and current conditions that exist for rural preschool children and their families in America, and to recommend strategies for improving adverse cognition and learning conditions, including a lack of early literacy skills, and low high school completion rates that frequently are found in this population, utilizing the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as a framework. Attention will be given to demographics, academic performance and scientifically-based practices proven to impact both teaching and learning for rural preschool children, particularly those from minority households, incorporating the newly developed CCSS. A comparison will be made between rural white and African American children’s learning and cognition, highlighting significant disparities for African American students, despite the fact that they make up less than 10 % of all rural preschool children. For the scope of this study, rural communities will be defined as those with varying qualities situated outside of metropolitan areas. Results from this study reveal the conditions for rural preschool children, especially those from African American families with low-income levels. Findings indicate that providing training for teachers, administrators and families linked to rural schools; and infusing CCSS into the rural preschool curricula significantly improves school readiness, and decreases dropout rates.

Glycemic Control and Diabetic Dyslipidemia in Adolescents with Type 2 Diabetes

ObjectiveThe incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is increasing at an alarming rate, especially in ethnic minorities, and T2DM is associated with significant comorbidities. The primary objective of this study was to assess glycemic control and cardiovascular risk outcomes in children with T2DM at 1 year after diagnosis. We also assessed whether insulin treatment at onset of diabetes is beneficial for overall outcome in those with elevated glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C). MethodsA retrospective electronic chart review of non-Hispanic white (NHW) and African American (AA) children with T2DM. ResultsA total of 86 patients (66.3% females, 79.1% AA, mean age, 13.8 ± 2.4 years) with T2DM were included. Analyses of therapeutic outcome measures at the 1-year follow-up showed HbA1C <8% in 27.7% of patients, low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) >130 mg/dL in 12.5%, non-high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) >160 mg/dL in 15.6%, HDL-C <35 mg/dL in 25%, systolic hypertension (HTN) in 35.6%, and diastolic HTN in 6.8% of subjects. Among those started on insulin at initial diagnosis, there was significant improvement in glycemic outcomes (P<.0001 on insulin vs. P = .02 not on insulin) and dyslipidemia (total cholesterol [TC] [P = .001], LDL-C [P = .02], HDL-C [P = .01], non-HDL-C [P = .0002], and TC/HDL-C [P = .005]) compared with no significant change among those who did not receive insulin at diagnosis. ConclusionSubstantial numbers of children with T2DM do not achieve glycemic and cardiovascular therapeutic goals 1 year after diagnosis. Insulin therapy at diagnosis has significant beneficial effects on diabetic dyslipidemia in those with higher HbA1C. (Endocr Pract. 2013; 19:972-979)

The home environment and family asthma management among ethnically diverse urban youth with asthma.

Although the pediatric psychology literature underscores the importance of illness-related aspects of the home environment for optimal family asthma management, little is known about the contribution of more global aspects of the home environment (e.g., family routines/schedule, quality of stimulation provided to child) to asthma management in ethnic minority and urban families. The goals of this study were to (a) explore ethnic/racial group differences in global and specific dimensions of home environment quality among Latino, non-Latino White (NLW), and African American urban children with asthma; and (b) examine associations between the quality and quantity of support and stimulation within the home environment, as measured by the HOME Inventory, and family asthma management. Urban, low-income children (N = 131) between the ages of 6 and 13 with asthma and a primary caregiver participated in a multimodal assessment, including an in-home observation and semistructured interviews to assess aspects of home environment quality and family asthma management practices. While controlling for poverty, no ethnic group differences were found in the global home environment; however, there were significant differences in specific dimensions (e.g., Family Participation in Developmentally Stimulating Experiences, and Aspects of the Physical Environment) of home environment quality. Across the whole sample, home environment quality predicted family asthma management. When examining this association for specific ethnic groups, this finding did not hold for the Latino subsample. The results highlight the need to consider ethnic group differences in non-illness-specific aspects of the home environment when addressing families' asthma management strategies.

Beverage consumption among young children of different race/ethnic backgrounds from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

Early beverage choices are a predictor of children's later beverage consumption, nutrient intakes and body weight. Beverage intakes and associated calories and nutrients were examined using NHANES 2009–2010 for non‐Hispanic white (NHW), non‐Hispanic black (NHB) and Hispanic American (HA) children &lt;1–5 y (n=1,442) with reliable Day 1 24‐hr recalls. By 1 y of age, 22, 31 and 26% of NHW, NHB and HA, respectively, consume fruit drinks, and 11, 5 and 12% drink soda. Fewer NHB children (67%) drink milk than HA (78%), and those who do consume 12.6 oz./d, about 3–5 oz./d less than HA or NHW (p&lt;0.01). NHB are most likely to consume fruit drinks (40% vs. 28% HA, 29% NHW; p&lt;0.05) with 12.5 oz. consumed daily. HA (23%) are most likely to consume soda, but drink smaller amounts than NHB (6.3 oz./d; p&lt;0.05). More HA (60%) drink 100% fruit juice than NHW (50%; p&lt;0.05). HA who drink fruit juice consume less daily than NHB (8.2 oz. vs. 9.7 oz.; p&lt;0.01). For milk drinkers, milk contributes 63–74% of total daily vitamin D, 43–52% of calcium and 25–35% of potassium intakes, at 15–21% of calories. For those who drink soda and fruit drinks, these beverages supply 26–34 and 32–40% of added sugar intake, respectively. Children from all race/ethnic groups, particularly NHB, can benefit from drinking milk while reducing consumption of nutrient‐poor beverages to help improve their diets. Supported by the Dairy Research Institute/National Dairy Council.

Beverage consumption among school‐age children of different race/ethnic backgrounds from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

Beverage choices are a way to improve children's diets and reduce race/ethnic disparities given their contribution to calorie and nutrient intakes in the U.S. Beverage intakes and associated calories and nutrients were examined using NHANES 2009–2010 for non‐Hispanic white (NHW), non‐Hispanic black (NHB) and Hispanic American (HA) children 6–17 y (n=2,129) with reliable Day 1 24‐hr recalls. NHB (57% of children) are least likely to drink milk and those that do drink 2–3 oz./d less than NHW or HA (p&lt;0.01). While NHW are most likely to drink milk (p&lt;0.01), 30% do not drink any milk. All milk drinkers consume &lt;2 cups/d on average. NHB are most likely to consume fruit drinks (49% vs. 34% HA, 28% NHW; p&lt;0.01), consuming 13.8 oz./d, but are least likely to drink soda (35%; p&lt;0.05). Half of NHW drink soda, and they consume the largest amounts (18.6 oz./d; p&lt;0.05). NHW are least likely to drink 100% fruit juice (24% vs. 44% NHB, 41% HA; p&lt;0.01). For milk drinkers, milk contributes 62–66% of total daily vitamin D, 37–41% of calcium and 22–27% of potassium intakes, while providing 11–12% of calories. For those who drink soda and fruit drinks, these beverages supply 39–46 and 28–36% of added sugar and 9 and 7–9% of calorie intakes, respectively. There is room to improve beverage habits for all race/ethnic groups, which will help improve intakes of nutrients of concern for school‐age kids. Supported by the Dairy Research Institute/National Dairy Council.

Missed sleep and asthma morbidity in urban children

BackgroundChildren living in urban environments have many risk factors for disrupted sleep, including environmental disturbances, stressors related to ethnic minority status, and higher rates of stress and anxiety. Asthma can further disrupt sleep in children, but little research has examined the effects of missed sleep on asthma morbidity. ObjectiveTo examine the associations among missed sleep, asthma-related quality of life (QoL), and indicators of asthma morbidity in urban children with asthma from Latino, African American, and non-Latino white backgrounds. Given the importance of anxiety as a trigger for asthma symptoms and the link between anxiety and disrupted sleep, the associations among anxiety, asthma morbidity indicators, and missed sleep were also tested. MethodsParents of 147 children ages 6 to 13 years completed measures of asthma morbidity and missed sleep, parental QoL, and child behavior. ResultsHigher reports of missed sleep were related to more frequent school absences, more activity limitations, and lower QoL across the sample. The associations between missed sleep and asthma morbidity were stronger for Latino children compared with non-Latino white and African American children. For children with higher anxiety, the associations between missed sleep and asthma morbidity were stronger than for children with lower anxiety. ConclusionResults offer preliminary support for missed sleep as a contributor to daily functioning of children with asthma in urban neighborhoods. Missed sleep may be more relevant to Latino families. Furthermore, anxiety may serve as a link between sleep and asthma morbidity because higher anxiety may exacerbate the effects of disrupted sleep on asthma.

Meaning making in middle childhood: An exploration of the meaning of ethnic identity.

Social identity, including identification with one's ethnic group, is an important aspect of social development. However, little is known about the subjective meaning associated with social group memberships, particularly during middle childhood. Using second- and fourth-graders responses to an open-ended question, we explored the meaning of ethnic identity with a sample of Chinese, Dominican, Russian, White, and Black American children. Analyses revealed that middle childhood is an active period for meaning making as children described the ethnic identity to include ideas such as language, physical appearance, pride, relative social position, and culture. While there were few differences in the ethnic identity meaning responses of second- and fourth-grade children, the meaning of ethnic identity varied considerably across the ethnic groups underscoring how the unique features and experiences of different ethnic groups shapes the subjective meaning of ethnic identity. These findings align with prior research on the meaning of ethnic identity among adults and adolescents and offer insight for future research regarding the conceptualization and measurement of the meaning of social group membership.