Whistled Languages Research Articles

The Physiology of Vocal Damping: Historical Overview and Descriptive Insights in Professional Singers

Summary/ObjectiveVocal damping has been historically described as a distinctive phonatory glottic behavior where the posterior part of the vocal folds is strongly adducted and vibration occurs in the anterior part. The aim of the present descriptive study is to analyze anterior glottis phonation patterns in professional singers through a multidimensional approach, in order to better understand the physiological underpinnings of vocal damping and their relation to glottic vibratory mechanisms. MethodsTen professional singers (five males and five females) with no vocal complaints were recruited. Each subject was asked to produce ascending and descending glissandos in a spontaneous way; sustained vowels and little sung fragments in vocal fry, chest voice, falsetto, and whistle register. Each singer was asked to produce – where possible – damping sounds.A multidimensional investigation including acoustic analysis, electroglottography and videolaryngostroboscopy was carried out. ResultsAmong the enrolled singers, nine out of ten successfully produced vocalizations with a typical anterior-vibrating glottic pattern indicative of damping. All nine singers achieved a damping glottic configuration when vocalizing in the falsetto register and five were consciously able to switch between a full-glottic falsetto and a damping falsetto upon request. Three male and two female singers were able to produce a damping glottic configuration while emitting whistle notes. Three male singers demonstrated damping glottic configurations when producing chest notes in a belting style. ConclusionsIn conclusion, it is possible to state that damping is an existing and documentable glottic behavior, with a wide range of manifestations across vocal registers. The present preliminary study describes damping in the domains of chest voice, falsetto and whistle register. A proper damping phenomenon, defined as the modification of the glottic vibratory boundaries according to pitch variations, is described for M2 emissions, both in male and female larynx. The analysis of passaggio patterns allows to describe damping-M2 as a possible vibratory sub-mechanism.

Drugie życie silbo gomero – jak edukacja, turystyka i sztuka przyczyniły się do ocalenia gwizdanego języka z Gomery

THE SECOND LIFE OF SILBO GOMERO – THE CONTRIBUTION OF EDUCATION, TOURISM AND ART TO SAVING THE WHISTLED LANGUAGE OF THE ISLAND OF LA GOMERA Silbo gomero is a whistled language used by inhabitants of La Gomera (Canary Islands) and created before the arrival of Spanish settlers to overcome communication problems resulting from the deep ravines and narrow valleys that radiate through the island. The language, commonly used in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, declined in the 1950s–1980s due to economic migration, the growth of tourism and technological developments e.g. the telephone. Since the language was endangered in the late 1990s, revitalization efforts were generated at both community and governmental level. Nowadays, tourism is not a threat to silbo gomero; it’s seen as a great opportunity and as a generator of both employment and income. Unlike other islands in the archipelago, La Gomera focuses on natural resource-based tourism and cultural tourism and silbo gomero seems to be an ideal magnet for tourists looking for something more than the beach and the sun.

Biomechanics of sound production in high-pitched classical singing

Voice production of humans and most mammals is governed by the MyoElastic-AeroDynamic (MEAD) principle, where an air stream is modulated by self-sustained vocal fold oscillation to generate audible air pressure fluctuations. An alternative mechanism is found in ultrasonic vocalizations of rodents, which are established by an aeroacoustic (AA) phenomenon without vibration of laryngeal tissue. Previously, some authors argued that high-pitched human vocalization is also produced by the AA principle. Here, we investigate the so-called “whistle register” voice production in nine professional female operatic sopranos singing a scale from C6 (≈ 1047 Hz) to G6 (≈ 1568 Hz). Super-high-speed videolaryngoscopy revealed vocal fold collision in all participants, with closed quotients from 30 to 73%. Computational modeling showed that the biomechanical requirements to produce such high-pitched voice would be an increased contraction of the cricothyroid muscle, vocal fold strain of about 50%, and high subglottal pressure. Our data suggest that high-pitched operatic soprano singing uses the MEAD mechanism. Consequently, the commonly used term “whistle register” does not reflect the physical principle of a whistle with regard to voice generation in high pitched classical singing.

Register shifts in whistling: Investigating the influence on tongue shaping and gender-related variances

The study examines whistling register changes and the influence of tongue shape. In previous work, [Kaburagi et al., 2018] used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), finding the degree and type of restriction made by the tongue directly impacted whistle F0. [Belyk et.al., 2019] found similar results using real-time magnetic resonance imaging (rtMRI), however, did not specifically observe register shifts. This study aimed to validate whistle register shifts and identify their variations among individuals regarding tongue position and gender. We hypothesize that participants with broader whistling ranges will exhibit register shifts based on tongue shape. Measures based on ultrasound imaging of male and female participants recorded while completing whistling exercises will be included in the analysis. This methodology enables tongue movements to be visualized, offering a view of the interplay between whistling registers and tongue configurations. ImageJ analysis results of tongue positions from ultrasound imaging will be presented with relevance to whether individuals produce a shift in their vocal register while whistling, and whether these conclusions depend on gender, as in sung register. Implications will be discussed regarding potential similarities between register changes during whistling and tongue shapes associated with speech.

Vocal Fold Vibration of the Whistle Register Observed by High-Speed Digital Imaging

Singers use a whistle register to sing at a fundamental frequency above 1000Hz. In previous studies, vocal fold vibrations with or without complete closure and partial vocal fold vibrations were observed depending on the subject. However, the production mechanism of the whistle register is not yet clearly understood because of the limitations of the imaging device for the glottis and subjects. This study aims to examine vocal fold vibrations in a whistle register. The dynamic behavior of the glottis was recorded for six singers (four females and two males) using a high-speed digital imaging device with a frame rate above 10,000fps. Audio signals were recorded simultaneously. The data were analyzed in the form of topography, glottal area waveforms, spectrograms, and phonovibrography to examine spatiotemporal patterns of glottal motion. The vibratory motion of the vocal folds was classified into six patterns. The first pattern was the entire vocal fold vibration with complete closure during the closed phase. The second to fifth was the entire vocal fold vibration without complete closure, where a gap was observed for the full length of the vocal folds for the second, at the posterior part of the glottis for the third, at the anterior for the fourth, and at both ends for the fifth. In the sixth pattern, the vocal folds vibrated partially. Our results support the previous findings on the vibration of the vocal folds. In addition, we identified novel vibratory patterns in the vocal folds. We conclude that the production of the whistle register is not just an extension of the falsetto register to the higher fundamental-frequency region; rather, the production mechanism of the whistle register appeared to be diverse as a means of vocalization.

Bookshelf

Bookshelf Debra Greschner (bio) Parr, Sean M. Vocal Virtuosity: The Origins of the Coloratura Soprano in Nineteenth Century Opera. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021. E-book, xvii, 301 pp., $48.99. ISBN 978-0197542644; Paper, $65.00. ISBN 978-0-1975-4264-4 www.global.oup.com For centuries, audiences have thrilled to the sounds of coloratura. From the earliest appearance of florid passages in medieval liturgy to the roulades of Rossini, melismatic singing has captivated listeners. Over the course of the nineteenth century, however, the use of coloratura changed. The vocal virtuosity that characterized the operas of Bellini and Donizetti is absent from the late operas of Verdi, and composers such as Puccini and Bizet eschewed it completely. Musicologist Sean Parr explores the origins and history of the modern coloratura soprano, including when the Fach was established and how its development was influenced by exponents of French opera. He avers that coloratura was not anachronistic in nineteenth century opera; instead, it was an indicator of new expressive and dramatic directions. Parr also explores the social and cultural significance of coloratura and demonstrates that fioritura had implications well beyond the footlights. The chronicle begins with an overview of changes that occurred at the turn of the nineteenth century. In 1798, Pope Pius VI revoked the ban against women appearing on stage; eight years later, the French emperor forbade castrati. Parr explains that the resulting increase in opportunities for women necessitated changes in voice pedagogy models because the master teacher paradigm that required students to live with their instructors was deemed inappropriate for female singers. This shift solidified the importance of formal music schools, such as the Paris Conservatory. Founded in 1795, the institution was influential in standardizing music education, even publishing a treatise that codified the curriculum of voice pedagogy. The structured approach to technique (which included an emphasis on the whistle register) and the influence of pedagogues Laure Cinti-Damoreau (1801–1863), Gilbert-Louis Duprez (1806–1896), and Manuel Garcia II (1805–1906) enabled sopranos to develop the skills required for melismatic singing. Parr cites pedagogic treatises of the era to demonstrate the widening rift that developed between melismatic and sustained singing styles as evidenced in the writing of Francesco Lamperti (1813–1892) and Julius Stockhausen (1826–1906). There was also a shift along national lines. Parr details how Italian opera began to move away from coloratura, as exemplified in the middle period operas of Giuseppe Verdi. The author postulates that the fioritura serves as an omen of impending doom for the character who sings it; for instance, Gilda's elation in "Caro nome" is artificial and the melismas serve as an ominous warning. The author draws the same parallel for the arias "Sempre libera" (La traviata) and "Merci, jeunes amies" (Les Vêpres siciliennes). The dark subtext of these arias contrasts with the joyful or exuberant mood usually associated with coloratura, and Parr contends the mood reflects Verdi's opinion of melismatic singing. Despite its disappearance from Italian operas, coloratura remained a mainstay in the stage works of French composers. There were several important exponents of the Fach, but the most significant of the era was soprano Caroline Carvalho (1827–1895). Born Marie Félix-Miolan, she created sixteen roles in the span of seventeen years. Five were leading roles in operas by Charles Gounod, including Marguerite in Faust and Juliette in Roméo et Juliette. (She also premiered Gounod's setting of "Ave Maria" based on the first keyboard prelude by J. S. Bach.) Parr proffers a detailed portrait of the noteworthy performer and créatrice. In regard to the latter, Carvalho possessed formidable skills in performing variations as exemplified by her performance of the aria "Carnaval de Venise" (La Reine Topaze) by Massé. Her marriage to Léon Carvalho in 1853 increased her sphere of influence. As an opera director who worked at several theaters, including the Théâtre-Lyrique and Opéra-Comique, Léon exhibited an astute ability to recognize operas with potential. In addition to presenting the premieres of many of Gounod's operas, he oversaw the first performances of Les Pêcheurs de perles by Bizet (1863), Les Troyens by Berlioz...

The Relevance of Human Whistled Languages for the Analysis and Decoding of Dolphin Communication.

Humans use whistled communications, the most elaborate of which are commonly called “whistled languages” or “whistled speech” because they consist of a natural type of speech. The principle of whistled speech is straightforward: people articulate words while whistling and thereby transform spoken utterances by simplifying them, syllable by syllable, into whistled melodies. One of the most striking aspects of this whistled transformation of words is that it remains intelligible to trained speakers, despite a reduced acoustic channel to convey meaning. It constitutes a natural traditional means of telecommunication that permits spoken communication at long distances in a large diversity of languages of the world. Historically, birdsong has been used as a model for vocal learning and language. But conversely, human whistled languages can serve as a model for elucidating how information may be encoded in dolphin whistle communication. In this paper, we elucidate the reasons why human whistled speech and dolphin whistles are interesting to compare. Both are characterized by similar acoustic parameters and serve a common purpose of long distance communication in natural surroundings in two large brained social species. Moreover, their differences – e.g., how they are produced, the dynamics of the whistles, and the types of information they convey – are not barriers to such a comparison. On the contrary, by exploring the structure and attributes found across human whistle languages, we highlight that they can provide an important model as to how complex information is and can be encoded in what appears at first sight to be simple whistled modulated signals. Observing details, such as processes of segmentation and coarticulation, in whistled speech can serve to advance and inform the development of new approaches for the analysis of whistle repertoires of dolphins, and eventually other species. Human whistled languages and dolphin whistles could serve as complementary test benches for the development of new methodologies and algorithms for decoding whistled communication signals by providing new perspectives on how information may be encoded structurally and organizationally.

Review: The Meaning of Soul: Black Music and Resilience Since the 1960s, by Emily J. Lordi

Review: The Meaning of Soul: Black Music and Resilience Since the 1960s, by Emily J. Lordi

Lateralization of Auditory Processing of Silbo Gomero

Left-hemispheric language dominance is a well-known characteristic of the human language system. However, it has been shown that leftward language lateralization decreases dramatically when people communicate using whistles. Whistled languages present a transformation of a spoken language into whistles, facilitating communication over great distances. In order to investigate the laterality of Silbo Gomero, a form of whistled Spanish, we used a vocal and a whistled dichotic listening task in a sample of 75 healthy Spanish speakers. Both individuals that were able to whistle and to understand Silbo Gomero and a non-whistling control group showed a clear right-ear advantage for vocal dichotic listening. For whistled dichotic listening, the control group did not show any hemispheric asymmetries. In contrast, the whistlers’ group showed a right-ear advantage for whistled stimuli. This right-ear advantage was, however, smaller compared to the right-ear advantage found for vocal dichotic listening. In line with a previous study on language lateralization of whistled Turkish, these findings suggest that whistled language processing is associated with a decrease in left and a relative increase in right hemispheric processing. This shows that bihemispheric processing of whistled language stimuli occurs independent of language.

The physiology of oral whistling: a combined radiographic and MRI analysis.

The fluid mechanics of whistling involve the instability of an air jet, resultant vortex rings, and the interaction of these rings with rigid boundaries (see http://www.canal-u.tv/video/cerimes/etude_radiocinematographique_d_un_siffleur_turc_de_kuskoy.13056 and Meyer J. Whistled Languages. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2015, p. 74-774). Experimental models support the hypothesis that the sound in human whistling is generated by a Helmholtz resonator, suggesting that the oral cavity acts as a resonant chamber bounded by two orifices, posteriorly by raising the tongue to the hard palate, and anteriorly by pursed lips (Henrywood RH, Agarwal A. Phys Fluids 25: 107101, 2013). However, the detailed anatomical changes in the vocal tract and their relation to the frequencies generated have not been described in the literature. In this study, videofluoroscopic and simultaneous audio recordings were made of subjects whistling with the bilabial (i.e., "puckered lip") technique. One whistling subject was also recorded, using magnetic resonance imaging. As predicted by theory, the frequency of sound generated decreased as the size of the resonant cavity increased; this relationship was preserved throughout various whistling tasks and was consistent across subjects. Changes in the size of the resonant cavity were primarily modulated by tongue position rather than jaw opening and closing. Additionally, when high-frequency notes were produced, lateral chambers formed in the buccal space. These results provide the first dynamic anatomical evidence concerning the acoustic production of human whistling. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We establish a new and much firmer quantitative and physiological footing to current theoretical models on human whistling. We also document a novel lateral airflow mechanism used by both of our participants to produce high-frequency notes.

PITCH PROFILE OF THE GLOTTAL WHISTLE (M4)

This paper presents a previously unreported method of laryngeal vocal sound production that is capable of producing pitches even higher than the whistle register (M3). Colloquially known as the glottal whistle (here referred to as M4), this method has a wider range than M3 and features frequent instances of biphonation, which is of interest for those involved with contemporary and improvised music. Pitch profile analyses of M4 have found the majority of fundamental frequency (f0) activity to be between 1 and 3 kHz, while the most frequently seen range was between 1000 to 1,500 Hz. Remarkably, multiple singers were able to produce f0 higher than the highest tone on the piano. (Keywords: glottal whistle, whistle register, M3, voice science, high fundamental frequency)

Glottal behavior in the high soprano range and the transition to the whistle register

The high soprano range was investigated by acoustic and electroglottographic measurements of 12 sopranos and high-speed endoscopy of one of these. A single laryngeal transition was observed on glissandi above the primo passaggio. It supports the existence of two distinct laryngeal mechanisms in the high soprano range: M2 and M3, underlying head and whistle registers. The laryngeal transition occurred gradually over several tones within the interval D#5-D6. It occurred over a wider range and was completed at a higher pitch for trained than untrained sopranos. The upper limit of the laryngeal transition during glissandi was accompanied by pitch jumps or instabilities, but, for most singers, it did not coincide with the upper limit of R1:f(0) tuning (i.e., tuning the first resonance to the fundamental frequency). However, pitch jumps could also be associated with changes in resonance tuning. Four singers demonstrated an overlap range over which they could sing with a full head or fluty resonant quality. Glottal behaviors underlying these two qualities were similar to the M2 and M3 mechanisms respectively. Pitch jumps and discontinuous glottal and spectral changes characteristic of a M2-M3 laryngeal transition were observed on decrescendi produced within this overlap range.

Chest, head and whistle registers in an untrained female singer analyzed by videokymography, strobolaryngoscopy and sound spectrography

There has been a lack of objective data on the singing voice registers, particularly on the so called register, occurring in the top part of the female pitch range, which is accessible only to some singers. This study offers unique strobolaryngoscopic and high‐speed (7812.5 images/s) videokymographic data on the vocal fold behavior of an untrained female singer capable of producing three distinct voice qualities, i.e., the chest, head and whistle registers. The sound was documented spectrographically. The transition from chest to head register, accompanied by pitch jumps, occurred around tones B4‐C#5 (500‐550 Hz) and was found to be associated with a slight decrease in arytenoids adduction, resulting in decrease of the closed quotient. The register shifts from head to whistle, also accompanied by pitch jumps, occurred around tones E5‐B5 (670‐1000 Hz) without any noticeable changes in arytenoids adduction. Some evidence was found for the vocal tract influence on this transition. The mechanism of the vocal fold vibration in whistle register was found principally similar to that at lower registers: vibrations along the whole glottal length and vertical phase differences (indicated by sharp lateral peaks in videokymography) were seen on the vocal folds up to the highest tone G6 (1590 Hz).

Three registers in an untrained female singer analyzed by videokymography, strobolaryngoscopy and sound spectrography

There has been a lack of objective data on the singing voice registers, particularly on the so called "whistle" register, occurring in the top part of the female pitch range, which is accessible only to some singers. This study offers unique strobolaryngoscopic and high-speed (7812.5 imagess) videokymographic data on the vocal fold behavior of an untrained female singer capable of producing three distinct voice qualities, i.e., the chest, head and whistle registers. The sound was documented spectrographically. The transition from chest to head register, accompanied by pitch jumps, occurred around tones B4-C#5 (500-550 Hz) and was found to be associated with a slight decrease in arytenoids adduction, resulting in decrease of the closed quotient. The register shifts from head to whistle, also accompanied by pitch jumps, occurred around tones E5-B5 (670-1000 Hz) without any noticeable changes in arytenoids adduction. Some evidence was found for the vocal tract influence on this transition. The mechanism of the vocal fold vibration in whistle register was found principally similar to that at lower registers: vibrations along the whole glottal length and vertical phase differences (indicated by sharp lateral peaks in videokymography) were seen on the vocal folds up to the highest tone G6 (1590 Hz).

Physical definition of the “flageolet register”

The highest "register" of the female singing voice, often called the "flageolet register" (also called "flute register," "bell register," etc., as well as the misleading term "whistle register"), is broadly recognized by voice pedagogues, but not generally defined in terms that are adequate for objective description. This article presents a description of characteristic patterns of vocal fold movement and of vocal tract formants that are specific for the register. Measurements are made by electroglottograph, pharyngeally placed wide-band pressure transducers, and an external microphone in professional soprano subjects who are adept in using this register.

Physiologie und akustische Analysen der Pfeifstimme der Frau

Only a few singers are able to use to whistle voice, normally to produce extremely high pitches at the upper limit of their range. The laryngeal mechanism of the whistle voice is not completely understood. Stroboscopy shows only a horizontal vibration, the entire length of the vocal cords vibrating. The vocal cords are stretched to their maximal length. The spectral analysis of the whistle voice shows that the first two partials are much more pronounced than the higher ones. The 3D-PAN of the modal register is more complex than that of the whistle register.

An investigation of the whistle register in the female voice

The purpose of the study was concerned with specific elements of the portion of the female voice commonly referred to as whistle or flute register. Three elements of vocal production were chosen for which past research has demonstrated relationships to source function. These elements included spectral characteristics, airflow rates, and perceptual identification. The research compared what the singer-subjects perceived as being whistle register phonations with that which they perceived as being head register phonations. A comparative technique was utilized where pitch, intensity and phonemic category were held relatively constant, register, therefore, being the only variable. Spectral characteristics and airflow rates of the two subject-determined registers were compared. In addition, an attempt was made to determine if the whistle register could be perceptually differentiated on the basis of voice quality,

Whistle register and falsetto voice

Whistle register and falsetto voice

Vowel formants in the soprano voice

The formants which determine vowel quality lie largely in the range of 250–1850 Hz. Since normal speech, male or female, rarely has fundamentals higher than 250 Hz, it is generally assumed in speech studies that the formants modify the harmonics of the laryngeal tone. The same assumption is valid for the lower singing voices with occasional exceptions. The fundamental pitch of the soprano singer however often goes as high as 1320 Hz, and sometimes in the coloratura voice, considerably higher. Very little attention has been given by voice scientists to the interaction of formants and laryngeal tone in this region. The present study has been addressed to the question of whether harmonics of the formants modify the fundamental of the glottal tone in this range (sometimes called the “whistle register”). The presentation will include videotapes of one of the authors (EC), singing tones between 1000 and 1500 Hz, using vowel positions of most of the usual singing vowels. Each vowel had formants whose harmonics reinforce the fundamental pitch, but there is virtually no audible difference in the vowel character of the resulting sounds.