Steering Wheel Research Articles

"Simulation Approach to Investigate the Influence of the Steering Wheel Angle and Vehicle Speed on the Rollover of a 4-Axle Truck Vehicle during Turning Maneuvers"

The article aims to investigate the influence of vehicle speed and steering wheel angle on the rollover condition of a 4-axle truck vehicle. A 30-degree-of-freedom (DOF) dynamic model of a 4-axle truck is established using the Multibody System Method and the Newton-Euler equation system. The vehicle body is described with 6 DOFs. Additionally, 2 DOFs are used to describe the roll motion of the front and rear masses of the vehicle body, taking into account the influence of the torsional stiffness of the vehicle frame on vehicle dynamics. The Burckhardt tire model calculates the interaction forces between tires and the road, using experimental coefficients corresponding to the road with a maximum adhesion coefficient of 0.8. The simulation uses MATLAB-Simulink, with a 5 to 65 km/h speed range and a steering wheel rotation angle ranging from 25 to 300 degrees. The results have determined the vehicle rollover conditions based on the signs of the load transfer ratio of the axle and the entire vehicle. Together with the results of lateral acceleration, yaw rate, and roll angle of the vehicle. This result can be used to propose dynamic thresholds for designing early warning systems and anti-rollover control systems for multi-axle truck vehicles.

Nose wheel steering mode analysis based on aircraft operation scenarios

Nose wheel steering mode analysis based on aircraft operation scenarios

A mathematical model of the movement of an unmanned tractor with front steerable wheels during the «rearrangement» maneuver

BACKGROUND: the movement of an unmanned tractor can be represented in the form of elementary primitives, one of which is the «rearrangement» maneuver. Taking into account the kinematic limitations of a wheeled mover with front steerable wheels, it is necessary to calculate in advance the coordinates of the beginning of the maneuver depending on the magnitude of the displacement and the speed of movement for accurate and effective planning of the trajectory. AIMS: development of a mathematical model of the movement of an unmanned wheeled tractor with front steerable wheels when performing the «rearrangement» maneuver, obtaining analytical dependences of the length of the maneuver and the time of the control signal from the speed of movement and the required displacement value. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To achieve this goal, a mathematical model of the kinematics of the curvilinear motion of a wheeled tractor with front swivel wheels was developed. The description of the maneuver and possible trajectories of movement are given. RESULTS: In the course of theoretical research, the dependences of the time of the control signal and the length of the maneuver were obtained, depending on the required amount of displacement when the tractor is moving at different speeds. The approximation of the obtained data made it possible to obtain analytical dependencies. CONCLUSION: the obtained dependencies can be used to control unmanned tractors with front steerable wheels at different displacement values and when moving at different speeds to perform the «rearrangement» maneuver clearly at specified waypoints.

Electrocardiogram-Based Driver Authentication Using Autocorrelation and Convolutional Neural Network Techniques

This study presents a novel driver authentication system utilizing electrocardiogram (ECG) signals collected through dry electrodes embedded in the steering wheel. Traditional biometric authentication methods are sensitive to environmental changes and vulnerable to replication, but this study addresses these issues by leveraging the unique characteristics and forgery resistance of ECG signals. The proposed system is designed using autocorrelation profiles (ACPs) and a convolutional neural network and is optimized for real-time processing even in constrained hardware environments. Additionally, advanced signal processing algorithms were applied to refine the ECG data and minimize noise in driving environments. The system’s performance was evaluated using a public dataset of 154 participants and a real-world dataset of 10 participants, achieving F1-Scores of 96.8% and 96.02%, respectively. Furthermore, an ablation study was conducted to analyze the importance of components such as ACPs, normalization, and filtering. When all components were removed, the F1-Score decreased to 60.1%, demonstrating the critical role of each component. These findings highlight the potential of the proposed system to deliver high accuracy and efficiency not only in vehicle environments but also in various security applications.

NMPC-Based Path Tracking Control Through Cascaded Discretization Method Considering Handling Stability for 4WS Autonomous Vehicles Under Extreme Conditions

In the realm of autonomous driving, motion control generally involves two critical aspects—path following and stability control—and an inevitable mutual interference exists between them under extreme conditions. To tackle this challenge, this study proposes a collaborative approach of path tracking and stability control. When designing the path tracking control module, the effects of vertical tire load transfer and road surface adhesion coefficients on tire force calculations were taken into account to mitigate vehicle dynamics model mismatch. Leveraging the receding horizon optimization characteristic of nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC), a cascaded discretization approach was utilized to realize a balance between precision and real-time performance in numerical solutions. Then, a stability controller, which employs rear wheel steering, was designed to prevent excessive increases in the vehicle’s sideslip angle, thereby ensuring the vehicle’s lateral stability. The effectiveness of the proposed strategy is validated through CarSim 8.0/Simulink cosimulation. The outcomes demonstrate that the stability controller significantly enhances vehicle stability under high-speed and low-adhesion conditions. On the premise of stability, the proposed path tracking controller has exhibited significant enhancements in real-time performance, without compromising the accuracy of path tracking.

Mechanisms of chest injuries from steering wheel intrusion in frontal collisions

Frontal collisions are the most common traffic accidents, during which drivers without properly using seat belts may be impacted by the steering wheel. Given the different driving habits and steering shaft angles, it is imperative to investigate the range of driver injuries incurred by the steering wheel from different angles. This study analyzed the driver’s thoracoabdominal injuries using the control variable method and represented them in a simulation matrix format. In addition, a GHBMC human model was utilized to simulate the thoracoabdominal injuries. The thoracoabdominal injury mechanism of the driver was investigated through simulation experiments at the steering shaft angles of 30°, 35°, 40°, and 45°. Two different seat shapes were analyzed to examine the influence of seat shapes on the driver’s movement during collisions. The results showed that the thoracic stress maximized at 1.051 GPa under the steering shaft angle of 40°. The curve fitting function was derived based on logistic regression to clarify the relationship between the steering shaft angle and maximum thorax compression. Subsequently, this function was employed to quantify the maximum compression at the steering shaft angle of 44°. The findings indicate that seat shape variations significantly influence chest compression during frontal collisions. From a passive safety perspective, improving seat shape and adjusting the steering shaft angle provides a significant reference value for reducing driver injuries.

System to Assist the Driver During a Single Lane Change Maneuver, in the Conditions of Danger Arising from a Change in the Condition of the Road Surface

The article describes the application of a vehicle simulation model to assess the driving hazards that arise due to changes in the tyre–road adhesion during a lane change. An experimentally verified vehicle dynamics model was used. The typical single lane change maneuver, performed on dry concrete, wet concrete, and ice-covered roads, was simulated for three vehicle speeds. The disturbance was introduced as a changed tyre–road adhesion on the target lane. Typical sinusoidal (one-period) input was applied to the steering wheel. Adhesion change may lead to an accident when considering the driver’s reaction time. An original control algorithm has been built. It is the driver assistance system with a double PID controller of the steering wheel angle. The system parameters were determined based on the principles recommended in the automatic control engineering monographs. The controller fulfils its tasks for motion at very high speeds on a homogeneous road surface and for the case where the tyre–road adhesion is changed during a maneuver. Thanks to this, the threat can be avoided.

DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF STEER-BY-WIRE (SBW) WITH LINEAR SENSORS TO A SMALL ELECTRIC VEHICLE

A steer-by-wire (SBW) system with linear sensors has been developed and implemented on a small electric vehicle (EV). This system comprises a steering wheel, an angle and torque sensor, a wheel angle feedback sensor, an electric motor actuator, linkages, and a controller. It is specifically designed to electrically control the wheel angles without utilizing a conventional steering gearbox. The electric actuator motor is mounted on the steering mechanism and directly connected to the left and right wheel knuckles via linkages. Two linear sensors are employed: one located on the steering wheel to generate steering wheel angle signal , and the other installed on the wheel knuckle mechanism to produce front wheel angle feedback signal . When the driver rotates the steering wheel, the controller calculates the pitch error based on inputs from the two linear sensors and subsequently adjusts the wheel angles by powering the electric motor actuator. Experimental testing revealed a response time of 0.3 seconds, with the pitch error maintained within an angle of less than 3° during straight-motion tests. During cornering motion tests, the measured backlash was approximately 0.06 rad, demonstrating the system's responsive performance. This SBW technology with linear sensors is anticipated to reduce system complexity while enhancing precision, accuracy, and response speed of wheel angle adjustments to steering inputs, effectively meeting driving requirements.

Fabrication of Novel Polyurethane matrix-based Functional Composites with Enhanced Mechanical Performance

Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) has gained significant interest in several fields, including automobile steering wheels, and the electronics sector due to their easier processability, abrasive resistance, and self-lubricating performances. However, their strong inherent flammability and significant smoke and heat production during burning limit their industrial applications. Therefore, its applicability can be enhanced with the addition of high-strength reinforcement and making them antibacterial and flame-retardant. This research is designed to examine the influence of zirconium phosphate (ZrP) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles on the novel polyurethane/glass fiber reinforced composites for flame retardant and antibacterial applications with improved mechanical performance. Three different types of novel polyurethane (PU1, PU2, PU3) matrices were prepared using different recipes, and 7% ZrP and 5% ZnO nanoparticles were added to the polyurethane matrices separately, and their corresponding composite samples were fabricated using glass reinforcement. Mechanical i.e., Charpy impact, hardness and tensile, and functional i.e., flame retardancy (FR) and antibacterial tests were performed to compare their performance. Mechanical testing results showed that PU3-based composite samples showed the highest values of impact force, hardness, and tensile strength in both ZrP and ZnO nanoparticle-based composite samples. Furthermore, 7% ZrP-PU3 composite exhibited the best performance of flame retardancy due to the presence of hexamethylene diisocyanates (HDI) content. Likewise, the 5% ZnO-PU3-based composite exhibited the highest antibacterial activity along with enhanced mechanical performance.

The direct yaw-moment control based on adaptive fuzzy LQR for distributed drive electric vehicles

This paper introduced a hierarchical control strategy for direct yaw moment (DYC) to enhance the handling and stability of distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) at medium to high speeds. The upper controller entailed a speed-following PI controller and an adaptive fuzzy linear quadratic regulator (AFLQR) controller, with the control objectives centered on reducing the absolute value of the sideslip angle and tracking the desired yaw rate. The proposed approach utilizes a fuzzy logic-based AFLQR controller, which could dynamically adjust the weighting parameters for sideslip angle and yaw rate in response to the vehicle speed and sideslip angle, offering better adaptability to varying driving conditions. At the lower control level, a tire-dynamic-load-based torque distribution method was applied. The control strategy’s efficacy was demonstrated through co-simulation involving CarSim and Simulink. This evaluation compared AFLQR control against non-yaw control, conventional LQR control and sliding mode control (SMC), focusing on handling and stability during sinusoidal steering wheel input test and double lane change maneuver. Results highlight that AFLQR reduces the sideslip angle by 7.88% and the yaw rate error by 84.29% compared to LQR, enhancing vehicle handling and stability. Lastly, a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experiment verified the control strategy’s validity.

Analysis of Energy Effort in Terms of Changes in Stiffness and Damping of Tire Wheels and Low Car Speed

This paper presents the results of a study on the effects of low car speeds and the elastic-damping properties of tires on steering effort. “Steering effort” is a measure of the demand/energy consumption of the power steering system that limits the force applied by the driver to the steering wheel. Low driving speeds, on the other hand, are characteristic of urban traffic, where we would like to see as many electric cars moving as possible. An increase in “driver effort” means a higher electricity consumption and shorter car range. In this study, energy intensity was evaluated for a typical maneuver such as a double lane change. For this purpose, measurements were made of the torque on the steering wheel, the speed of the car, and the lateral accelerations acting on the car. A torque wheel, an optoelectronic sensor for measuring the components of the car’s motion, and an acceleration sensor were used for the study. The test subjects were two passenger cars with hydraulic power steering systems. The tests were carried out for four values of air pressure in the tires. This made it possible to determine four work charts for each wheel. The work charts made it possible to identify the stiffness and damping coefficients of the tires for the tested cars. The values of the coefficients were used to determine the correlation between the directional coefficient of the regression lines of the skeletal axes of the elastic and damping characteristics and the index determining steering effort.

Investigation of the kinematics of turning a wheeled vehicle with a variable track

BACKGROUND: The trapezoidal lever mechanism used in the steering drive for turning steerable wheels to change the direction of movement of a wheeled vehicle does not fully meet the conditions for observing rolling wheels without slipping and conforming to the correct kinematics of rotation, which is especially evident when adjusting the track. AIMS: assessment of the degree of discrepancy between the actual kinematics of the turn and the kinematics of the correct turn when changing the track of the tractor. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analytical methods were used in the work, which made it possible to obtain some computational dependencies, perform a numerical analysis of the curvilinear motion of a tractor with a variable track for different parameters of the steering trapezoid, and on this basis establish patterns between the geometric characteristics of the steering trapezoid and the kinematic parameters. RESULTS: Rational geometric characteristics of the steering trapezoid, which make it possible to obtain the kinematic parameters of rotation closest to the required ones, are set for the most commonly used value of the width of the pivot track. For the Belarus-80.1 tractor, it corresponds to 1.02 m. At the same time, for example, at an angle of rotation of the inner steerable wheel of 25°, the minimum turning radius realized by the steering trapezoid is 0.6521 m (10.44%), and at 40° by 0.2829m (9.27%) differs from their values obtained from the pure rolling condition. When changing the track width of the machine, there is a violation of the initial geometric characteristics of the trapezoid and the corresponding mismatch of the kinematic parameters of the rotation carried out by the steering trapezoid and by the correct rotation increases. A comparison of the minimum turning radii at an angle of 25° and a pivot track of 1.42 m showed an increase of 3.2340 m (35.83%), and at 40° — by 0.8956 m (20.21%). CONCLUSION: To ensure the correct turn, it is necessary to conduct a thorough theoretical analysis of the never mechanism of the steering trapezoid and improve its design on this basis.

Steer-by-wire control algorithm using a dual-layer closed-loop model

Steer-by-wire (SBW) is a crucial chassis electronic control system. Accurate and rapid wheel angle control is key to enhancing system performance. This paper first establishes a dynamics model of the steering actuator. Then, a co-simulation vehicle model with CarSim and Simulink is built, and the feasibility of the SBW model is experimentally verified. Based on this, a front wheel angle compensation difference tracking strategy is proposed using the front wheel steering angle control method. This strategy compensates for the difference between the actual and ideal front wheel steering angles to achieve the desired front wheel angle progressively. A dual-layer controller is designed in the Simulink module and integrated with the CarSim module to achieve closed-loop feedback control of the front wheel angle. The upper layer controller employs a fuzzy PID control method to execute the front wheel angle compensation strategy, enabling two corrections of the front wheel angle and yaw rate. The lower layer controller corrects wheel angle information to improve control effects. Simulation results under double lane change and single lane change conditions show that the fuzzy PID controller with front wheel angle compensation significantly enhances vehicle steering stability. Notably, at high speeds, the peak yaw rate is lower, convergence speed is faster, and response time is shorter.

Development of Electro-Mechanical Actuator for Wheel Steering of Railway Vehicles

Development of Electro-Mechanical Actuator for Wheel Steering of Railway Vehicles

Analysis and control of vehicle steering wheel vibration based on acceleration transfer path analysis method

This study analyzes and controls the vibration of a vehicle steering wheel by employing the acceleration transfer path analysis (acceleration-TPA) method and vibration sensitivity method. A steering wheel vibration test is conducted to determine the critical engine speed and corresponding frequency. The acceleration-acceleration transfer function from mounts body side to the steering wheel is derived and tested. The acceleration spectrum of the steering wheel is synthesized, and the accuracy of the synthetic results is evaluated. The vibration transmitted by each path is investigated, and the main vibration participation paths are identified. The interaction mechanisms between the path transfer vibration, path vibration participation, and total vibration are further obtained. The critical parameters of the main vibration participation paths are matched, modified, and experimentally verified for vibration control. The results indicate that pertinently matching the stiffness parameters of the mounts and reducing vibration sensitivity of the structure lead to decreased dynamic force transmitted by the paths and controlled steering wheel vibration.

Comparative Research on Landing and Rollout Characteristics of Skid-Equipped and Wheeled Aircraft

Skid landing gear is a specialized landing device known for its compact structure and lightweight. However, current research on the dynamic characteristics of skid-equipped aircraft on concrete runways is limited, which raises uncertainties about its practical applications. To address this gap, a general aircraft model based on a modular concept is first constructed, considering the coupling effects of aerodynamic, buffer, and ground forces. On this basis, the differences in motion characteristics between skid-equipped and wheeled aircraft are compared in detail. Then, the impact of various factors on the landing characteristics of skid-equipped aircraft is analyzed, such as initial longitudinal velocity, pitching angle, and friction coefficient of skid. Simulation results show that the lack of buffering capability provided by tires results in a 10.57% increase in overload for skid-equipped aircraft and a 15.39% decrease in the efficiency of the main landing gear buffer. Notably, the initial pitching angle has a critical impact on the landing overload of skid-equipped aircraft. Due to the significant differences in the mechanical properties of the landing gears, the skid-equipped aircraft without nose wheel steering ability is a statically unstable system during the rollout phase. The intervention of asymmetric disturbances would pose a serious threat to the rollout safety.

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ГЕОМЕТРИЧЕСКИХ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИК ФАКТИЧЕСКОГО ПОВОРОТА КОЛЁСНОЙ МАШИНЫ

Based on the above calculation scheme of controlled curvilinear motion of a wheeled vehicle, it was revealed that the steering trapezoid causes some discrepancy between the kinematics of real and correct rotation. It is established that when adjusting the track width of the machine, the kinematic mismatch between the optimal rolling conditions of the wheels increases, and, consequently, the calculated dependences of the parameters of the ideal turn will not give a satisfactory result when analyzing the actual turn. The minimum theoretical turning radius is taken as an estimated indicator of the turnability of a wheeled vehicle. The conclusion of a multifunctional analytical dependence for determining the theoretical minimum turning radius of a wheeled vehicle, the wheels of which are controlled by a steering trapezoid, is presented. The resulting formula includes the longitudinal base of the machine, the pin track, the angles of rotation of the inner and outer steerable wheels. A comparison of the calculation results according to the developed and known formulas is given, which confirmed the complete convergence. It was found that, for example, an increase in the pivot track of the machine by 0.2 m leads to an increase in the theoretical minimum radius of the actual turn by 16.5%, and the distance from the continuation of the rear axle to the instantaneous center of rotation by 45.07...98.02% when the angle of rotation of the inner steering wheel changes from 20° to 40°.

The impact of camera-monitor system viewing angles on drivers’ distance perception: A simulated driving study

Camera-monitor systems (CMS) are increasingly used in driving. CMS separates the driver's sight line from the camera view, due to the lack of mirror reflection, only changing the camera's visual axis angle may affect the driver's rear view perception. While previous research has explored camera height and field of view, the effects of horizontal and vertical viewing angles alone remain unclear. This study aimed to evaluate how the horizontal viewing angle and vertical viewing angle of CMS camera affect distance estimation and car-following tasks. By changing the horizontal and vertical viewing angle, different self-vehicle references and horizon positions were formed in the image. Two experiments were conducted with the CMS around the steering wheel (Experiment 1) and at the bottom of the A-pillar (Experiment 2). Independent variables were the horizontal viewing angle (reference scale: 1/4, 1/3, 1/2) and vertical viewing angle (horizon position: 1/2, 1/3). Dependent variables included distance estimation error ratio and following distance. Experiment 1 demonstrated a significant interaction effect: a smaller reference scale and higher horizon position reduced distance underestimation. Additionally, a smaller reference scale for the participants' self-vehicle resulted in shorter following distances. In Experiment 2, the distance estimation outcomes on the left display aligned with those of Experiment 1; however, the influence of the viewing angle was diminished on the right display. The study suggests CMS design should balance vehicle reference inclusion with environmental cues, enhancing distance perception and driving safety. The consistency between CMS design and driver familiarity also needs to be considered.

Multi-objective ergonomics design model optimization for micro electric cars via response surface methodology

Despite advancements in ergonomic comfort assessments in automotive design, optimizing seat dimensions within the constrained spaces of micro-electric cars presents a substantial challenge. In this study, response surface methodology (RSM) is utilized for the ergonomics design of a micro electric car in the conceptual design phase. Specifically, five critical seat dimensions are analyzed: Seatback Angle, Seat Base Angle, Steering Wheel Height from Car Base, Distance from Seat Base to Pedals, and Distance from Seat Base to Steering Wheel. The analysis took place using a 2-level full factorial design L32 orthogonal array. The optimal dimensions are determined using RSM, such as the mean comfort level and signal-to-noise ratio are maximized, and the standard deviation for multiple drivers is minimized. Three regression models are formulated for the three responses, and their adequacy is checked using different methods. The optimal dimensions are obtained and verified through digital human modeling simulation. This research offers practical guidelines for the ergonomic seating design in micro-electric vehicles, enhancing comfort without compromising space efficiency.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Workplace Communication: Promises, Perils, and Recommended Policy

Communication sits at the heart of any coordination within organization. Yet, what are the consequences when employes use Artificial Intelligence (AI) to copilot, i.e., support, their communication? While AI support in human interactions holds much promise for improving communication quality at work, it also fundamentally challenges how much people trust that communication. We, therefore, ask how organizations should introduce AI. In particular, we focus on the responsibility of leaders as stewards of workplace communication. Accordingly, we offer a set of specific hands-on recommendations on how employes should be guided to use AI copiloting effectively so that they do not give in to the temptation of letting go of the “steering wheel” (i.e., allowing AI to [auto]pilot intraorganizational communication).