Spelt Wheat Research Articles

Occurrence of mycotoxins in spelt and common wheat grain and their products

Organic farming does not allow the use of conventional mineral fertilizers and crop protection products. As a result, in our experiments we chose to grow different species of cereals and to see how cereal species affect mycotoxin accumulation. This study describes the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and T-2/HT-2 toxin in a survey of spelt and common wheat and their bran as well as flour. The analysis was conducted using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The concentrations of DON, ZEA and T-2/HT-2 in Triticum spelta and T. aestivum were influenced by species, cereal type and year interaction. The highest concentrations of these mycotoxins were found in spelt grain with glumes, in spelt glumes and in spring wheat. These results show significantly higher concentrations of Fusarium toxins in glumes than in dehulled grain, which indicates the possible protective effect of spelt wheat glumes. The lowest DON, ZEA and T-2/HT-2 concentrations were determined in spelt grain without glumes. The research shows that it is potentially risky to produce bran from grain in which mycotoxin concentrations are below limits by European Union Regulation No. 1881/2006, since the concentration of mycotoxins in bran can be several times higher than that in grain. As a result, although bran is a dietary product characterised by good digestive properties, it can become a harmful product that can cause unpredictable health damage.

Reproduction of confused flour beetle Tribolium confusum Du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on common and spelt wheat and their products

The interest in spelt wheat production has grown in recent years but there is hardly any information on pest development on that wheat species in storehouses. The influence of common and spelt wheat and their products on the reproduction and offspring of confused flour beetles Tribolium confusum Du Val was studied under laboratory conditions (22-25?C and 40-60% RH). The experiment was carried out in four replications with four, 10 and 20 insects over a period of six months. The reproduction of confused flour beetles significantly varied depending on the wheat species and product. The highest reproduction rate was recorded on spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.). The greatest number of offspring beetles appeared on spelt wheat flour (23469). The number of offspring beetles was higher on common (7044) than on spelt wheat kernels (5469). No offspring developed on common wheat pasta while only 4 young beetles were found on spelt wheat pasta. Offspring numbers increased with storage period up to a point but further on they depended on insect number. The number of insects increased over the first four months but decreased later on and the mortality rate was higher. Initial population density affected the offspring numbers but offspring numbers did not rise proportionally with the rising initial population density. Considering the species of wheat, higher mortality was recorded in common wheat. Regarding the type of product, the highest mortality was recorded in pasta, then in kernels and the lowest in flour. The paper shows that confused flour beetles develop extremely well on spelt wheat, even better than on common wheat which is widely grown in Serbia.

Comparative analysis of the characteristics of different types of wheat seeds

This paper presents the results of seven varieties of different species of wheat (Triticum spelta L. - Nirvana; Planeta, Cipovka, Aleksandra, Srma, Janja - Triticum aestivum L. emend. Fiori et P.; Verona - Triticum aestivum L. ssp. Compactum) for achieving seed yield and threshing. During the testing of each variety were determined by the following qualitative characteristics: 1000 kernel weight, test weight and germination. It also was determined vigor of seedlings. The experiment was conducted during 2012. and 2013. in the area Globoder of the city of Krusevac. Factor year had a significant effect on seed yield and total germination. Factor cultivar significantly affected the threshing: yield, test weight, 1000-seed weight and germination. The tested factors had no significant effect on seedling vigor.

Forage yield and quality of emmer (Triticum dicoccum Schübler) and spelt (Triticum spelta L.) as affected by harvest period and nitrogen fertilization

Emmer (Triticum dicoccum Schübler) and spelt (Triticum spelta L.) are two ancient cereal crops which have been traditionally grown in the semiarid areas of the Mediterranean basin. The renewed interest in these species has its origin in favorable quality parameters of grain. Unfortunately, there is a lack of information on hulled wheat characteristics when a whole plant is used as forage. Therefore, a field trial was carried out in southern Italy during 2010–2011 to evaluate the effect of N applications (0, 40, and 80 kg ha−1) and harvest period (cut at boots just swollen and cut at early dough) on forage yield and quality of two emmer varieties (“Padre Pio” and “Giovanni Paolo”) and one of spelt (“Altamura”) on their biomass yield and nutritional traits as well as carbohydrates fractionation. Data indicated that the harvest stage and genotype affected forage yield and quality significantly, while N fertilization has influenced some qualitative parameters. Old wheat cultivars tested had considerable yield and forage quality, and they seem to be adapted to marginal lands in the absence of N fertilization. Therefore, from our findings we can conclude that the emmer could be recommended for hay production harvested at booting stage given its valuable nutritional characteristics, whereas spelt results to be more adaptable for silage production when harvested at the early dough stage.

Ocena skuteczności działania regulatorów wzrostu w pszenicy orkisz

Spelt is one of the oldest subspecies of wheat, known already from the stoneage. Over time it has been supplanted by modern wheat varieties, but in recent years the cultivation of spelt is undergoing its renaissance. To a large extent this is related to the development of organic farming and increasing interest of consumers in so-called healthy food. Compared with common wheat, spelt wheat grain contains more minerals and proteins, but its processing is more difficult and expensive. One of the problems in cultivation of spelt wheat is susceptibility of winter varieties grown in Europe to lodging. The aim of the two-year field study conducted in the Agricultural Experimental Station Institute of Plant Protection – National Research Institute in Winna Gora was to determine the effectiveness of different growth regulators used in the spelt wheat crops. The following preparations were tested: ethephon, trinexapac ethyl, trinexapac ethyl + chlormequat chloride and prohexadione calcium. The evaluated parameters were: plant height, internodes length and the yield. Shortening effect was observed on all plots with growth regulators used. The best effect was obtained after the application of a mixture of trinexapac ethyl + chlormequat chloride.

Efficiencies of different methods for determination of organophosphate pesticide residues in fermented wheat substrate

In the present work, the efficiencies of three different sample preparation methods for GC/ MS determination of pirimiphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos-methyl residues in wheat (Triticum spelta) samples fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum were compared. All three methods were based on methanol:acetone=1:1 extraction, while further purification of the obtained samples was altered. First purification was through a column containing a mixture of aluminium oxide and activated charcoal slurry-packed and eluted with dichlormethane, the second was purification on a florisil column slurry-packed and eluted with ethyl acetate:acetone=4:1, while the third was based on a combination of the former two methods, i.e. clean-up through columns filled with a mixture of aluminum oxide and activated charcoal slurry-packed and eluted with ethyl acetate:acetone=4:1. The second method was found the most effective for obtaining satisfactory recoveries at four fortification levels. For pirimiphos-methyl, recoveries were in the range of 91.3-96.0% and had good reproducibility, i.e. RSD ranging from 2.2-4.1%, while the corresponding range for chlorpyrifos-methyl was 81.6-88.2%, and the RSD range 2.5-5.4%. The chosen method was further optimized in order to establish the optimum volume of elution solvent used during the clean-up procedures. The highest recoveries of 93.7?3.5% for pirimiphos-methyl and 85.3?2.5% for chlorpyrifos-methyl were obtained after elution with 25 ml volume of solvent. Considering all, simple, efficient and reliable GC/MS detection of pirimiphosmethyl and chlorpyrifos-methyl residues in wheat grain substrate altered by fermentation with L. plantarum was achieved by the two-steps extraction with 25 ml of methanol:acetone=1:1 solvent mix for 30 min, followed by a clean-up procedure through a glass column with florisil coupled with elution by 25 ml of ethyl acetate:acetone=4:1.

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA using amplified fragment length polymorphism markers of isonuclear allocytoplasmic male sterile wheat accessions and their maintainer lines

To produce a good F1 hybrid variety wheat crop, it is necessary to explore novel cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) lines and their maintainer line. This study aimed to identify cytoplasmic variation in three isonuclear-alloplasmic male sterile lines Aegilops kotschyi (Ae.kots) -90-110, Aegilops ventricosa (Ae.ven) -90-110, and Triticum spelta (T.spelta) -90-110 and their maintainer line, A-90-110, at the molecular level. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was isolated using a combination of centrifugation and density gradient ultracentrifugation, sucrose sedimentation, lysis with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), potassium proteinase, and phenol/chloroform extraction methods. To detect mtDNA purity, specific primers were designed for nuclear (β-actin) and mitochondrial (COXIII) genes. Results indicated that the mtDNA was pure, and therefore suitable for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genetic analysis. Comparative analysis of mtDNA was conducted using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Reproducible polymorphisms were detected between the Aegilops and Triticum species and the male sterile lines. Four specific primers were screened from 64 AFLP marker primers, which provided the molecular basis for further studies investigating specific cytoplasmic male sterility characteristics.

Research Regarding the Use of Wheat Biodiversity for Obtaining some Cereal-Based Fermented Mashes

Cereal-based fermented beverages are an opportunity to include probiotics and fiber in human nutrition. Nowadays, increasing the interest for rediscovering the benefits, on scientific basis, of traditional fermented beverages based on cereals. Fermented mashes based on different cereal grist, namely Braga in Romanian, is a healthy and nutritious beverage, a source for new functional products with beneficial effects on human health. Physical-chemical and sensorial characteristics of these beverages depend on the ingredients and method of preparation. In this article was analyzed the influence of the five varieties of wheat on the main physical-chemical and sensorial characteristics of the fermented mashes obtained from grounded debranned millet (Panicum miliaceum), different species of wheat (Triticum aestivum - two variety, Triticum durum - one varieties, Triticum spelta - one variety and Triticum turgidum - one variety) and well modified Pilsner barley malt. There have been two series of determinations: first series with ground millet with the disc mill set to 0.1 mm and a second series with ground millet with the disc mill set to 0.4 mm disc gap. For both series, the other grains used were milled to 0.4 mm disc gap. The mashes content is 1:12 = grounded mix (millet : wheat : barley malt = 1.33:1:1): water. After boiling, reconstruction of the initially content with water, filtering and adding of 7% w/w white crystalline sugar those two series of five sweet mashes was inoculated with a mixed culture (0,01% w/w - dry wheat beer yeast and 0,04% w/w - dry cheese lactic acid bacteria), incubated at 30 ºC for 15 h in the thermostat and then stored at 6ºC for 63 h. At beginning and follow-up of fermentation the mashes were analyzed (pH, volatile and total acidity, total and soluble dry substances, alcohol concentration and dynamic viscosity). At the end of fermentation, it was done the sensory evaluation (colour, sweet, sour, taste, texture and stability). All determinations have made in triplicate and data are shown as mean ± SD. The best results have obtained for mashes containing T. Spelta wheat, followed by mashes with T. durum variety. Highest dynamic viscosity and total acidity was recorded for mashes obtained with Triticum turgidum variety of wheat.

The protective effect of hulls on the occurrence of Alternaria mycotoxins in spelt wheat

Since there is an increasing demand on the world market for alternative crops suitable for organic production, spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum spp. spelta L.) is a highly attractive farming option. Alternaria species are widespread and infect a great variety of economically important crops. Certain species are known producers of mycotoxins. The aim of this study was to assess the protective effect of hulls covering the spelt kernels on Alternaria toxins. Alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) were evaluated in hulls and dehulled kernels after plant inoculation with one A. alternata and two different A. tenuissima isolates. Mycotoxins were determinated using high-performance liquid chromatography with dioade array detection. The detected levels of AOH and AME were four times higher in hulls compared to kernels in inoculation treatments. AOH was registered at levels ranging from 227 to 331 µg kg(-1) in dehulled kernels and from 433 up to 1647 µg kg(-1) in hulls. AME was predominant toxin detected in the range of 277 to 398 µg kg(-1) in dehulled kernels and from 1844 to 2183 µg kg(-1) in hulls, with highly significant difference to water control treatment. Obtained results indicate the significantly higher concentrations of Alternaria toxins in hulls than in dehulled kernels which implicate the possible protective effect of spelt wheat hulls.

Chromosomal localization of the speltoidy gene, introgressed into bread wheat from Aegilops speltoides Tausch., and its interaction with the Q gene of Triticum spelta L.

The differences between bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and spelt (Triticum spelta L.) in the shape of the spike and threshing character are determined by the allelic status of one major Q gene, mapped to the long arm of chromosome 5A. This gene is a member of the APETALA2 family of transcription factors and plays an important role in domestication of wheat. In the present study, using monosomic analysis, we determined the chromosomal localization of the Q(S)gene, introgressed into bread wheat from Aegilops speltoides Tausch. and homoallelic to the Q gene. It was demonstrated that the Q(S) gene was located in chromosome 5A of the bread wheat line from the Arsenal collection. This gene conferred spike speltoidy in the line itself, as well as in its hybrids with bread wheat cultivars. The Q(S) gene dominated over the bread wheat Q gene and was equally effective in the homo-, hemi-, and heterozygous states. In hybrids between the introgression line and a number of spring spelt accessions, interaction between the Q and Q(S) genes was observed, manifested as the formation of superspeltoid spike.

Performance of biofortified spring wheat genotypes in target environments for grain zinc and iron concentrations

Genetic biofortification to improve zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) concentrations in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) could reduce micronutrient malnutrition-related problems in the developing world. A breeding program on wheat was started to enhance Zn and Fe concentrations and other essential traits needed in a successful commercial variety. The first set of advanced lines derived from crosses of high yielding wheats with genetic resources possessing high Zn and Fe such as Triticum spelta, landraces and synthetic wheat based on Triticum dicoccon were tested at nine locations in South Asia and Mexico for Zn and Fe concentration, grain yield and other traits. Analyses of variance across locations revealed significant genotypic, environmental and genotype×environment (G×E) effects for grain Zn and Fe concentrations and grain yield. Variances associated with environmental effects were larger than the genotypic and G×E effects for all three traits, suggesting that environmental effects have relatively greater influence. Although G×E interaction was significant, high heritabilities were observed for Zn and Fe concentrations at individual sites and across environments, reflecting non-crossover type of interaction. This trend was confirmed by the high genetic correlations between locations that showed similar ranking of entries across locations, indicating that it is possible to select the best adapted entries with high Zn and Fe concentration. Pooled data across locations showed increments of 28% and 25% over the checks for Zn and Fe. A considerable number of entries exceeded intermediate to full breeding target Zn concentrations, indicating that it is possible to develop Zn-biofortified varieties with competitive yields and other farmer preferred agronomic traits. The positive and moderately high correlation between Zn and Fe concentration suggest good prospects of simultaneous improvement for both micronutrients.

Waxy genes from spelt wheat: new alleles for modern wheat breeding and new phylogenetic inferences about the origin of this species

Waxy proteins are responsible for amylose synthesis in wheat seeds, being encoded by three waxy genes (Wx-A1, Wx-B1 and Wx-D1) in hexaploid wheat. In addition to their role in starch quality, waxy loci have been used to study the phylogeny of wheat. The origin of European spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) is not clear. This study compared waxy gene sequences of a Spanish spelt collection with their homologous genes in emmer (T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum), durum (T. turgidum ssp. durum) and common wheat (T. aestivum ssp. aestivum), together with other Asian and European spelt that could be used to determine the origin of European spelt. waxy genes were amplified and sequenced. Geneious Pro software, DNAsp and MEGA5 were used for sequence, nucleotide diversity and phylogenetic analysis, respectively. Three, four and three new alleles were described for the Wx-A1, Wx-B1 and Wx-D1 loci, respectively. Spelt accessions were classified into two groups based on the variation in Wx-B1, which suggests that there were two different origins for the emmer wheat that has been found to be part of the spelt genetic make-up. One of these groups was only detected in Iberian material. No differences were found between the rest of the European spelt and the Asiatic spelt, which suggested that the Iberian material had a different origin from the other spelt sources. The results suggested that the waxy gene variability present in wheat is undervalued. The evaluation of this variability has permitted the detection of ten new waxy alleles that could affect starch quality and thus could be used in modern wheat breeding. In addition, two different classes of Wx-B1 were detected that could be used for evaluating the phylogenetic relationships and the origins of different types of wheat.

Identification of QTLs Conferring Agronomic and Quality Traits in Hexaploid Wheat

The availability of elite germplasm resources with high yield and quality potentials is very important for development of cultivars in wheat. Thus, seeking such resources has been the continuous effort of breeder community. In this study, genetic analysis of a novel resource, Triticum spelta line CSCR6, from Australia was made by use of a recombination inbred line (RIL) population of 82 individuals from the cross between CSCR6 and another Australian hexaploid wheat cultivar, Lang. Data of a multiple environmental test was employed to genetically dissect quantitative trait loci (QTL) for agronomic traits such as plant height (PH), spike length (SL), spikelet per spike (SPI), grain number per spike (GNS) and thousand grains weight (TGW) and for quality traits including grain protein content (GPC), gluten content (GC), grain hardness (GH), falling number (FN) and sedimentation value (SV). A 24 QTLs with additive effects were detected for all the investigated traits, and were located on chromosomes 1B, 1D, 2B, 3A, 3B, 3D, 4B, 5A, 5B, 7A, and 7B, respectively. Some QTLs located on 2B and 4B showed higher explanation of phenotypic variances and were not obviously interacted with environment. A QTL in the marker interval of wPT-5334-wPT-4918 (near the locus barc 0199) on 4B gave the highest contribution ratio of 30.76% on PH, while Qgpc-4B and Qgc-4B gave 13.07 and 14.70% contribution ratio on GPC and GC, respectively. Qph-2B, Qgns-2B, and Qgpc-2B showed 13.36, 10.00, and 10.79% contribution ratio on PH, GNS and GPC, respectively. Also, a QTL on 5A, Qsl-5A, could explain 25.12% of phenotypic variance on SL. For most of agronomic and quality traits, CSCR6 alleles produced increase effects. The fact that a number of loci affecting the investigated traits were detected in T. spelta line CSCR6 revealed that it could offer a new opportunity for the manipulation of these traits in wheat breeding programs.

Malting process optimization of spelt (Triticum spelta L.) for the brewing process

During the last decades the cultivation towards hulled wheat has been increased due to the high agricultural and environmental adaptability and its uses for unconventional foods. There are many applications of spelt in bakery industry but not in the beverage industry, which makes new approaches in the malting and brewing process for further investigation.In this work, the malting process of dehulled spelt was optimized for its potential as alternative cereal in the brewing and beverage process. Malting was optimized based on barley and wheat malt specifications, which are considered to be appropriate in the brewing industry for a good and easy processing. The influence of three malting parameters (degree of steeping, germination time, and temperature) on the quality of spelt was investigated by employing a response surface methodology. Malt quality parameters involving amylolytic, proteolytic and cytolytic specifications were evaluated to examine and guarantee a good processability.The optimal malting program was achieved after 5 days of germination with a moisture content of 47g/100g, and at 17°C. The criteria to optimize the malting program were chosen to assure good processability. This project shows a new possibility to adopt the production of spelt beverages and furthers expands the market of alternative cereals.

The influence of some plant protection chemical means on leaf area and their tip angle of some winter spelt wheat varieties (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.)Wpływ niektórych środków ochrony roślin na kształtowanie powierzchni liści i kąta ich nachylenia u wybranych odmian ozimych pszenicy orkisz (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.)

Summary The aim of the study was to estimate the influence of chemical plant protection including application of growth regulator Stabilan 750 SL (CCC), fungicide Alert 375 SC as well as herbicides Mustang 306 SE (florasulam; 2,4‐D) and Attribut 70 WG (sodium propoxycarbazone) on forming of LAI and MTA indexes of winter spelt wheat varieties (Frankenkorn, Badengold, Schwabenspeltz, Oberkulmer Rotkorn, Ostro, Ceralio, Schwabenkorn and Spelt I.N.Z.) in conditions of non‐ploughing and plough‐cultivation systems. The field experiment was conducted in 2009–2011 in Bezek near Chelm on rendzina soil. The leaf area index (LAI) and mean tip angle (MTA) were evaluated three times in the canopy of spelt wheat at shooting stage, heading and milky‐wax maturity by means of LAI‐ 2000 meter, firm LI‐COR (USA). The highest LAI index was shown by Schwabenkorn cultivar. At the same time this cultivar was characterized by more horizontal leaves position influencing on a relatively low value of MTA index. Chemical plant protection significantly decreased leaf area index of spelt wheat and increased the value of MTA index. Soil tillage system had diversified influence on examined traits.

Identification of hybrids of spelt and wheat and their parental forms using shape and color descriptors

Grain images of three common wheat varieties, five spelt breeding lines and 24 single hybrids between wheat and spelt were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA). The values of shape descriptors (Area, Perimeter (Perim.), Feret’s Diameter (FD), Minimal Feret’s Diameter (MFD), Circularity (Circ.), Aspect Ratio (AR), Roundness (Round.), Solidity (Solid.)) and color descriptors (H S I and L a b, calculated based on average and modal values of R G B for every kernel image) were analyzed. The results indicate significant differences between the group of 24 hybrids and their parental forms. In the majority of cases, the average values of variables describing hybrid grain were within the range of values reported for wheat and spelt. The geometric features of hybrid grain, excluding Area and MFD, were marked by greater variation than wheat cultivars and spelt lines. The highest variation of color components was reported in respect of common wheat. Parental partner configuration (Triticum aestivum×Triticum spelta vs. T. spelta×T. aestivum) had no effect on color variation in hybrid grain images. Grain images characterized by higher values of H (shift from red to yellow) or L had also higher Circ. values, while grain images characterized by lower values of this shape descriptor were closer to red in hue and darker in color. PCA supported strong discrimination of the studied forms as regards their shape and color descriptors. In the PCA investigating shape descriptors only, the percentage of variation explained by the first two PCs reached a high 98.98%, whereas it was determined at 90.27% for color descriptors. The PCA of variables describing the shape and color of grain images supports reliable discrimination of hybrids and their parental forms. The applied method may facilitate the identification of hybrids between common wheat and other Triticum species, and the selection process in creative breeding.

Comparison of methods for bifenthrin residues determination in fermented wheat samples

Efficiency of three different sample preparation methods for GC/MS determination of bifenthrin residues in wheat (Triticum spelta) samples fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum was tested. The first method was based on a methanol:acetone=1:1 extraction folowed by a purification on columns containing mixture of aluminium oxide and activated charcoal slurry-packed and eluted with dichlormethane, the second was based on methanol:acetone=1:1 extraction folowed by the purification on florisil column and elution by ethil acetate:acetone=4:1, while the third tested method was based on a combination of the first two mentioned methods, thus methanol:acetone=1:1 extraction and clean-up throught columns filled with a mixture of aluminum oxide and activated charcoal slurrypacked and eluted with ethil acetate:acetone=4:1. The second method was the most effective for obtaining satisfactory recoveries for bifenthrin in a range of 79-83% for four fortification levels, with good reproducibility i.e. RSD% in a range of 2.2-7.4%. The chosen method was further optimized by assessing the optimum volume of elution solvent used during the clean-up procedures. The highest recovery of 82.1% was obtained after elution with 25 ml of solvent. Overall, two-step extraction with 25 ml of methanol:acetone=1:1 solvent mix for 30 min, followed by clean-up procedure through a glass column with florisil coupled with elution with 25 ml of ethyl acetate: acetone=4:1, allows simple, efficient and reliable GC/MS detection of bifenthrin residues from wheat grain fermented by L. plantarum.

Is organically produced wheat a source of tocopherols and tocotrienols for health food?

Forty organically grown spring and winter wheat genotypes were investigated for content and compositions of tocopherol and tocotrienol. The selected genotypes belonged to five different genotypic groups, i.e. landraces, old cultivars, modern cultivars, spelt wheat, and primitive wheat. The total tocochromanols content (21.9–37.3mg/kg) wheat were in similar ranges as previously reported for conventionally grown wheat. The vitamin E activity varied among the genotypic groups and corresponded to 12–25% of the recommended daily intake. Primitive wheat was found to contain the highest percentage of tocotrienols (74%). Content of tocochromanols and vitamin E activity are known to decrease by heating. Organic wheat is more commonly consumed as whole and sprouted grain when compared to conventional wheat and might therefore be a good source of tocochromanols in health food. The large variation in tocopherols and tocotrienols in the investigated wheat genotypes indicated a great potential for the development of specific wheat genotypes with health promoting properties in future breeding programmes.

Biomass and nitrogen accumulation and translocation in spelt (Triticum spelta) grown in a Mediterranean area

The importance of stored assimilates for grain development in cereals has been widely recognized, particularly in conditions exposed to abiotic and/or biotic stresses during the grain filling period. This study was conducted to investigate dry matter and N accumulation and translocation in spelt cultivars in a Mediterranean environment and to identify possible N losses from the plant foliage during the grain filling period. Three spelt cultivars (Ressac, Poème and Cosmos) and one bread wheat cultivar (Centauro) were grown in a silty clay soil in 2003 and 2004 under two N rates (0 and 100kgha−1). Spelt plants were taller, showed higher early crop growth rate and accumulated more dry matter and total N compared to wheat plants at both anthesis and maturity. Spelt cultivars had significantly lower harvest index and N harvest index, suggesting a lower rate of partitioning of assimilates and N into the grain compared to wheat. N application increased dry matter and N accumulation and resulted in higher grain yield. Post-anthesis N uptake was on average lower for spelt compared to that for wheat. Dry matter translocation in spelt ranged from 0.1 to 6Mgha−1 and N translocation efficiency from 62.1 to 81.1%. Spelt showed higher values for all dry matter and N translocation related parameters compared to wheat. N losses by plants during the grain filling period were observed and were associated with the total N accumulated up to anthesis. High amounts of N (>189kgNha−1) at anthesis combined with low grain yield resulted in net N losses by plants. Results indicated than spelt could be used as alternative crop in cooler Mediterranean areas. The major constrain for growing spelt, however, was the severe lodging observed irrespective of N rate applied. Thus, lodging resistance should be a major goal of spelt breeding to sustain its future production. Moreover, the development of early-maturing varieties is necessary to improve spelt adaptation under Mediterranean conditions.

Stable isotope investigations of charred barley (Hordeum vulgare) and wheat (Triticum spelta) grains from Danebury Hillfort: implications for palaeodietary reconstructions

Palaeodietary studies typically focus on the analysis of bone collagen due to the limited availability of plant remains. Isotopic analysis of plant remains, however, allow for a more extensive consideration of the contribution of plants to the human diet and can potentially provide information about the environment in which the crops were grown. This paper reports the results of carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses performed on charred barley and wheat grains recovered from pits within Danebury Iron Age hillfort. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first Iron Age site in Britain from which charred grains have been isotopically analysed. Our results suggest that cereals found at the hillfort were grown in several different environmental contexts. The isotope data demonstrate that the herbivores were not consuming a diet primarily based on grains as the δ15N values of the grains are very similar to those of the herbivores. Palaeodietary investigations typically assume that humans eating plant protein only would have the same δ15N value as the local herbivores. This assumption is clearly invalid at Danebury, where the humans and animals appear to have consumed either different parts of the same plants or different plants. Researchers typically interpret high differences between human and animal δ15N values as indicative of diets high in animal protein, however where major plant resources have δ15N values similar to those of the herbivores our ability to distinguish between plant and animal sources of protein in the diet is limited. Our research has demonstrated that whenever possible it is desirable to measure the isotopic signatures of potential major plant resources in order to understand past subsistence strategies.