Wheat Flour Research Articles

Valorization and the potential use of garlic (Allium sativum L.) skin in food industries

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a common culinary component because of its medicinal properties. However, the industry often discards garlic skin, which constitutes about 20–30 % of the total production. Garlic skin (GS) is a good source of phytochemicals and therapeutic compounds. Many cultures have recognized the health benefits of GS in preventing and treating illnesses. This review article highlights the main bioactive components of GS, including total flavonoids, total phenolics, and their derivatives, which may help regulate blood sugar, reduce cardiovascular disease risk, and offer anti-viral, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties. Based on current knowledge, GS is a valuable agricultural waste since it has a variety of biologically active ingredients. It can be used as a natural preservative in food products, particularly in the wheat flour (WF) industry, enhancing microbiological stability due to the antibacterial properties of garlic components like allicin. Incorporating GS into WF improves the nutritional value and flavor of the resulting flour-based food products, positively affecting the digestive system and antioxidant levels. This approach offers a unique blend of taste, nutrition, and health benefits.

Effects of Roller Milling Parameters on Wheat-Flour Damaged Starch: A Comprehensive Passage Analysis and Response-Surface Methodology Optimization

Damaged starch typically arises from mechanical damage caused by the action of the roller mills during the wheat flour milling process. The content of resulting damaged starch in the flour significantly influences its characteristics, emphasizing the importance of understanding and controlling the formation of damaged starch for the production of specialized flours. A detailed passage analysis from three different commercial mills revealed that starch damage control is primarily achievable at front passages of the sizing and reduction system, which generate the majority of the flour release in the mill. Also, it revealed that damaged starch content increases progressively from the initial to the final passages during milling in the break, sizing and reduction system. To investigate the effects of milling parameters on damaged starch, flour yield, and energy consumption, a three-level and three-variable Box–Behnken experimental design with response surface methodology was applied. As independent variables roll gap (0.05–0.35 mm), feed rate (0.15–0.35 kg/cm min), and fast roll speed (400–800 rpm) were employed. The obtained models were utilized to optimize milling conditions for producing flours with special characteristics.

World practice of wheat flour classification

The paper presents a review of wheat classification accepted in various countries — producers of wheat and products of its processing (USA, Canada, Italy, France, Germany, China and others). Much attention is given to differences in the classification systems. Criteria for assigning wheat to certain classes based on physical and chemical properties of grain are examined. Differences in wheat classification by types, including morphological features and merits of grain such as size, color and gluten content, are highlighted. The authors discuss specific requirements and norms of wheat quality dictated by the regulatory authorities and requirements of the market of each country such as the mass fraction of moisture, content of impurities, density of grain and others. Based on the analysis of wheat classification in various world countries, it has been concluded that it is necessary to establish unified and generally accepted systems of wheat classification. This will allow simplifying international grain trade, make the market more transparent, strengthen trust between exporting and importing countries and will also facilitate the development of the international cooperation in the sphere of production and processing of wheat flour. Despite the wide assortment of flour confectionery products on the Russian market, baker’s flour of general purpose is mainly produced in the country. Its specific feature is a high content of flour from hard wheat varieties that are distinguished by higher protein content, strong gluten and large particle size. By its properties, this flour is not suitable for production of most flour confectionery products. Flour confectionery products produced from it are significantly inferior to import analogues in terms of their quality characteristics, which reduces their competitiveness. This dictates the need for the development of a standard for flour intended for production of confectionery products, which will include physico-chemical indicators for various flour types with consideration for their purpose.

Utilization of artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) by-products for enhancing nutritional value and phytochemical content of cookies

This study was conducted to make functional cookies using powdered artichoke stems and bracts, which are rich in phytochemicals. The chemical composition and phytochemicals in wheat flour, artichoke bract powder, artichoke stem powder and the produced cookies were determined. Physical properties, color and sensory characteristics were determined in wheat flour cookies, artichoke bract powder cookies and artichoke stem powder cookies. The results showed that artichoke bract powder cookies (15%) contained the highest levels of ash and protein being 2.07% and 9.65%, respectively. The cookies with powdered artichoke stems (15%) had the greatest overall lipid content (14.65%). Furthermore, the highest total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity were found in artichoke by-products (stems and bracts). The panelists approved of up to 15% artichoke by-product powder added to wheat flour. It can be seen from the results that the artichoke by-products are a good source of phytochemicals, minerals, total protein and total lipids, which improves the quality of cookies. Therefore, it can be concluded that using artichoke by-products up to 15% enhanced the antioxidant properties and nutritional value of the baked cookies.

Total Deoxynivalenol Contamination of Wheat Products and Coarse Grains in Shanghai, China: Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is an important mycotoxin produced by Fusarium spp., typically found in cereals, which has garnered considerable research attention. However, the risk assessment of DON exposure to muti-cereal is partial and biased, especially lacking the evaluation of different coarse grains. In this study, we synthesized and compared the presence of the total deoxynivalenol (free, acetylated, and masked) of a total of 372 grain samples (17 different types) based on high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS), as well as assessed the chronic and acute risks of total DON exposure in the Chinese population. DON was found at the highest frequency with an occurrence of 85.8% (319/372), followed by D3G at 17.2% (64/372). In total, 88.7% (330/372) of the grains were co-contaminated with mycotoxins. The DON and D3G contamination correlation coefficient was 0.68 in wheat flour. Moreover, different DON contamination levels were found in black beans (133.5 µg/kg), soybeans (128.7 µg/kg), and black rice (122.1 µg/kg). The DON/D3G/15A/tDON contamination level was significant differently among different coarse grains. Notably, the Monte Carlo model showed that 3.2–5.9% of adolescents consuming wheat flour and noodles suffered a chronic tDON risk.

Valorization of Lampung Province banana peel cultivars: nutritional and functional characterizations for biscuit production and wheat flour substitution

Valorization of Lampung Province banana peel cultivars: nutritional and functional characterizations for biscuit production and wheat flour substitution

Early estimation of glutelin to gliadin ratio in wheat grain using high-dimensional and hyperspectral reflectance

Precise and timely estimation of the glutelin-to-gliadin ratio (Glu/Gli) in wheat grain is pivotal for crop monitoring, as it is a crucial quality indicator ensuring the production of high-quality wheat flour. Despite the recognized potential of hyperspectral technology in crop phenotype estimation, its application to estimate Glu/Gli in wheat grains faces challenges due to complex spectral-chemical relationships and the influence of growing seasons. This study addresses this gap by cultivating 11 wheat varieties and collecting high-dimensional hyperspectral data from field experiments during various growth stages of wheat (2018–2019 and 2019–2020). Utilizing vegetation indices (VIs) in conjunction with linear mixed-effects model (LMM) and random forest regression model (RFR), it constructs a robust Glu/Gli estimation model (with a Glu/Gli range of 1.063 to 2.218). Results reveal that a singular VI application suffers from data limitations, while the integration of multiple VIs significantly enhances estimation accuracy. The mid-grain filling period emerges as a critical stage for accurate Glu/Gli estimation, with TCARI (transformed chlorophyll absorption reflectance index) demonstrating notable significance and high correlation. In model performance, RFR (R2 = 0.691, rRMSE = 0.096, RPD = 1.872, RER = 6.028) outperforms LMM (R2 = 0.477, rRMSE = 0.131, RPD = 1.383, RER = 4.453), exhibiting superior accuracy in estimating grain Glu/Gli for diverse wheat varieties. This study introduces a rapid and accurate approach for early wheat grain Glu/Gli estimation, offering valuable insights for wheat value chain and precision farming.

Improvement of bread kadayıf formulation with wheat germ and different fermentation methods

In this study, it was aimed to improve the functional properties of bread kadayıf. For this purpose, 30% of the wheat flour was replaced with wheat germ, and the samples were fermented in 3 different methods including active dry yeast, sourdough and chickpea yeast. Selected physical, chemical and sensorial properties were examined in the final samples. The use of chickpea yeast increased ash content, antioxidant activity, and total phenolic content. The amount of phytic acid reached higher values in the samples with wheat germ, but sourdough and chickpea yeast addition decreased phytic acid content both in the samples with and without germ. On the other hand, the mineral amounts of the samples (Ca, K, Fe, Zn) increased with wheat germ. When the sensory analysis results were examined, it was seen that the use of wheat germ did not have any negative effects on the bread kadayıf samples and active dry yeast added samples had higher overall acceptability scores compared to sourdough and chickpea yeast.

Chemical composition, physical properties, and sensory evaluation of wheat-based cookies enriched with different proportions of corn silk

Incorporating dried corn silk powder (CSP) into food products is considered beneficial for health and suitable for individuals of all ages. Thus, our study is designed to evaluate the effects of adding CSP to prepared cookies as a nontraditional source of dietary fiber and natural antioxidants, focusing on the chemical composition, physical properties, color attributes, antioxidant activity, and sensory properties of fortified cookies. Different CSP proportions (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) replaced wheat flour (WF) with a 72% extraction rate. The results revealed that CSP had significant levels of total phenolic content (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC), measuring 86.42 mg GAE/g and 112.68 mg QE/g, respectively. CSP contained higher quantities of protein and fiber than WF, with values of 14.81 g and 15.21 g per 100 g of flour weight basis, respectively. The amounts of phenolic compounds in cookie samples increased proportionally with the increasing substitution of CSP, while total carbohydrates decreased. Adding CSP at concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% resulted in corresponding increases in crude fiber of 0.52, 1.2, 2.04, and 2.7 times compared to the control cookie samples. As the amount of CSP supplementation increased (0–20%), TPC and TFC in the cookies increased to 3.06 and 4.08 mg GAE/g and 0.02 to 1.28 mg QE/g, respectively. Increasing CSP proportions led to a significant decrease in diameter, thickness, spread factor, volume, and density of fortified cookies. Furthermore, the L* value exhibited a substantial decline from 65.48 to 51.12 as the amount of CSP substitution increased from 5% to 20%. The sensory evaluation characteristics of the cookie samples indicated that the sample with 15% CSP had the highest overall acceptability score. Therefore, this study demonstrates that adding 15% CSP can effectively yield functional cookies without compromising their sensory acceptability.

Bio-composites from barley, wheat, and cassava flours reinforced with oil palm residues: Characterization and tensile mechanical performance

This study explores the production of bio-composites from barley, wheat, and cassava flours, reinforced with varying ratios of oil palm residues. The research emphasizes principles of circular economy and sustainability. Both flours and reinforcements underwent characterization to elucidate how their physicochemical properties affect the mechanical behavior of the bio-composites. Barley flour exhibited significantly higher levels of protein (11.11 %), crude fiber (5.64 %), and ash (2.80 %) compared to wheat and cassava flours. Conversely, cassava flour stood out for its high carbohydrate concentration (approximately 97.8 % on a dry weight basis). Characterization highlighted enhanced adhesion between reinforcements in bio-composites with cassava flour, alongside morphological distinctions on fractured surfaces. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) analysis unveiled several functional groups in the bio-composites, while thermogravimetric analysis delineated five stages of thermal degradation. In terms of mechanical properties, bio-composites with barley flour showed higher elastic modulus values (970.5 MPa), while those with 12 % OPKS exhibited tensile strengths of 1.7–2.1 MPa. The interaction among components emerged as a fundamental factor influencing the mechanical properties of bio-composites, underscoring the necessity of considering reinforcement composition and distribution during fabrication.

Effect of incorporating plant and animal-derived protein sources into whole wheat flour on its physical, rheological, nutritional, and chapati-making attributes

Effect of incorporating plant and animal-derived protein sources into whole wheat flour on its physical, rheological, nutritional, and chapati-making attributes

Impact of multi-frequency ultrasound processing with different treatment times on the structural quality of frozen wheat dough

This study investigates the effects of multi-frequency ultrasound treatment on the quality of frozen dough. We analyzed frozen wheat dough comprehensively for texture, viscosity, rheology, and structural quality characteristics under multi-frequency ultrasound (20 kHz, 20/40 kHz, and 20/40/60 kHz) with different treatment times (10, 20, and 30 mins). The dough treated with multi-frequency ultrasound increased elasticity and reduced hardness. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that 20/40/60 kHz for 30 min minimized freezing-induced morphological damage, decreased the tan δ in rheological analysis, and led to higher pasting and gelatinization enthalpy in starch granules, resulting in a more cohesive structure and lower free water content. Frozen dough hardness decreased by 52.1 %, which is associated with the control frozen dough with ultrasound frequency and duration changes. The spectral peaks in wheat flour frozen dough treated with single, dual, and tri-frequency ultrasound had the same forms and positions as the control samples but were arranged in an orderly manner. This study demonstrates the potential of multi-frequency ultrasound to enhance the quality of wheat frozen dough by mitigating freezing-induced deteriorations, offering a promising approach to improving the processing of frozen dough.

Development of gluten-free pasta with chickpeas as a wheat flour substitute and fortified with carob, beetroot, and spinach

The study aimed to develop pasta dough using chickpeas as a substitute for wheat flour and fortified with carob, beetroot, and spinach. Three formulations of gluten-free pasta were prepared: F1 (chickpea flour 97% + carob powder 2% + CMC1%), F2 (chickpea flour 87% + carob powder 2% + beetroot powder 10% + CMC1%) and F3 (chickpea flour 87% + carob powder 2% + spinach powder 10% + CMC1%). Physical, chemical, rheological, and sensory characteristics of chickpea pasta were evaluated and compared to semolina flour (CS) as a control. In comparison with conventional wheat pasta, chickpea pasta has a higher content of protein, fiber, and polyphenolic compounds. The results indicated that the incorporation of chickpea as a main ingredient significantly increased the content of protein in the formulations of gluten-free pasta (17.50, 15.05 and 14.88% in F1, F3, and F2, respectively) compared to CS (12.10%). A similar trend was observed for the fiber content (0.45, 1.89, 2.16, and 2.29 in CS, F1, F2, and F3, respectively) and polyphenolic compounds (109.14, 112.14, 141.89, and 178.96 in CS, F1, F2, and F3, respectively). Chickpea pasta demonstrated strong acceptance across all sensory criteria, including texture, odor, shape, and taste. Therefore, this study suggests that chickpeas can serve as an effective substitute for wheat, thereby increasing the availability of healthy options for everyone, particularly for those with celiac disease, obesity, or diabetes.

Technological aspects of managing the structural and mechanical properties of wheat bread crumb

This work is dedicated to the study of the structural-mechanical properties of wheat bread crumb 12 hours after baking and then every 24 hours during 108 hours of storage. The basis of this investigation was the study of the starch retrogradation process, which is a transfer of the amorphous structure of starch grains into the crystalline state, which predetermines an increase in the values of the hardness parameters and hardness index. The aim of the work was investigation of an effect of the state of carbohydrate-amylase and protein-proteinase complex of wheat flour by introduction of wheat malt and dry gluten on the structural-mechanical properties of crumb of bakery products and their staling rate during storage. In this study, the authors used baker’s wheat flour of the highest grade, wheat malt, dry gluten, bread from baker’s wheat flour of the highest grade that was made using the straight dough method by the experimental laboratory baking. The authors established an effect of dosing wheat malt and dry wheat gluten on changes in the water absorption of wheat dough in the process of mixing, on its rheological properties, on the structural-mechanical properties of crumb of wheat bread made by the experimental laboratory baking as well as on the rate of its staling during storage. The optimal dosage of wheat malt was 5%, which ensured the falling number equal to 235 s. The dose of dry gluten of 3% ensured the total gluten content in dough of 31.3%, dough moisture of 43.1% and dough consistency equal to 640 FU. Simultaneous introduction of wheat malt and dry wheat gluten ensured a decrease in the hardness index of wheat bread crumb by 55% and the rate of its staling by 3.3 times.

Eksplorasi Rasa Baru Melalui Inovasi Isian Choux Kolak Pisang untuk Meningkatkan Daya Tarik Menu

Choux craquelin is a variation of choux pastry characterized by a layer of dough on top, commonly referred to as craquelin, which becomes crunchy after baking. The primary ingredient used is wheat flour. The filling for choux typically consists of a cooled custard or cream, usually flavored with vanilla or fruit slices. In this instance, the author attempts to create a new flavor innovation for the choux au craquelin filling using kolak pisang. Kolak pisang is a sweet dish made with coconut milk and brown sugar, accompanied by the fragrant aroma of bananas, and is commonly enjoyed during certain occasions, such as Ramadan. The aim of this research is to determine the standard recipe, the level of preference for the product, and a business analysis. This study employs a research and development approach, and data collection was conducted through organoleptic testing with five expert panelists. The findings indicate that the appropriate standard recipe consists of the following: choux: 200g eggs, 120g water, 120g UHT milk, 100g margarine, 2g salt, and 150g wheat flour; craquelin: 100g butter, 100g wheat flour, and 90g granulated sugar; kolak pisang cream: 250g whipped cream, 7 pieces of jackfruit bananas, 200g palm sugar, 3 pandan leaves, 1g salt, 100g instant coconut milk, and 200g palm sugar. The business analysis revealed a food cost of Rp. 2,870 per piece, with a selling price of Rp. 8,000. The break-even point is reached by selling 442 pieces. To achieve a target profit of Rp. 3,000,000 per month, the author must sell 1,451 pieces per month. This research hopes to contribute to innovative developments in kolak pisang-based products.

Physicochemical characterization and sensory enhancement of cold plasma treated black whole wheat flour

This study examined the effects of cold plasma (CP) treatment on the physicochemical properties and sensory quality of black whole wheat flour (BWWF). Various factors including nutrient composition, color, amino acids, aroma, particle size, microstructure, antioxidant activity, and water migration were analyzed before and after CP treatment. The findings revealed that CP treatment had a minimal impact on the baseline nutrient composition of BWWF, but significantly improved its free amino acid profile, enhancing its nutritional value. The treated BWWF had an improved surface color, appeared brighter and yellower, and gave off a pleasant mellow aroma, while removing unpleasant flavor. The total phenolic content of BWWF increased while the flavonoid and anthocyanin content decreased after the treatment. CP-treated BWWF underwent aggregation cross-linking in the microstructure, and the content of bound water decreased, but the stability increased. In conclusion, CP treatment had great potential to improve the physicochemical properties and sensory quality of BWWF.

Effect on Rheological Behavior and Composition of Wheat Cookies Fortified with Black Rice (Chakhao) Flour

ABSTRACT Black rice, known for its high anthocyanin and antioxidant content, is native to Asian countries like Japan, China, Thailand, India, and Indonesia. In India, it is primarily grown in Manipur, Assam, and Meghalaya, where it is called Chakhao. Despite its health benefits, black rice remains underutilized in food processing. This study examined the rheological behavior of Chakhao black rice flour blended with wheat flour (BR1, BR2, BR3) using alveograph and mixograph tests. BR3 showed the best baking properties, with a G value of 17.5 and p value of 90 mm H₂O, indicating its suitability for baking, especially cookies. Nutritionally, BR3 cookies were rich in protein (10.4%), fiber (2.91%), and minerals (2.95%). High starch retrogradation limits use in bread and biscuits. BR3 cookies are sensory-acceptable and can be marketed as healthy, functional products. Future research could focus on improving taste while maintaining health benefits.

Kombinasi Rasa Lemon Curd dan Cassava Tart dalam Kreasi Kue pada Cafe U.Berkopi

This study discusses the development of a food product called Cassava Tart with Lemon Curd and Butterfly Pea Pannacotta, aimed at reducing the use of imported wheat flour by utilizing mocaf (Modified Cassava Flour) as a local ingredient. The pannacotta, prepared with butterfly pea powder, adds color variation and appeal. Collaboration with the cafe U.berkopi was conducted to test product preference, involving 25 panelists in a hedonic test. The results showed that 100% of the panelists were very fond of the appearance and color, 80% were very fond of the aroma, 84% were very fond of the texture, and 92% were very fond of the taste. The standard recipe for this product consists of various ingredients, including mocaf flour, margarine, lemon juice, whipping cream, and sugar. Business analysis indicated a potential profit of Rp. 2,000,000 per month from the sale of 486 pieces. This study recommends that culinary innovation continue to be developed by utilizing local raw materials.

Comparative Environmental Impact Assessment of Resistant Starch-Rich Pastas Produced from High-Amylose Soft Wheat or Malted Bean Flour

Flours rich in resistant starch (RS) are crucial for producing low glycemic index foods, as per Commission Regulation (EU) No. 432/2012. This study assessed the environmental profiles of two high-RS fresh pasta variants: one from malted and decorticated Gradoli Purgatory beans, and another from amylose-rich soft wheat flour, using the Product Environmental Footprint standard method. Both pastas had similar carbon footprints, but the overall weighted score of malted bean pasta was 38% higher than that of the high-amylose wheat pasta, making the latter more economically and environmentally viable. Climate change and water use were major contributors to their environmental footprints, influenced by cultivation practices. Mitigation strategies, such as cultivating drought-resistant beans, are recommended. Although greenhouse gas emissions per gram of protein or RS were similar, overall scores varied, emphasizing the need for sustainable crop selection. Consumer preferences may favor high-amylose wheat for glucose metabolism, while gluten-free, protein-rich needs can be met with malted bean flour, despite its higher environmental impact.

Enhancing biscuits with muskmelon seed flour: a study of physicochemical, textural, and nutritional characteristics

The baking industry is continuously innovating to develop new product formulations that appeal to consumers through both taste and enhanced nutritional value. Biscuits, one of the most popular bakery products globally, serve as an ideal medium for the fortification of essential nutrients. Muskmelon seeds, rich in protein, oil, vitamins, min-erals, and amino acids, offer a natural source for the fortification of various food products. This research focuses on incorporating muskmelon seed flour into biscuit formulations to enhance protein, dietary fiber, mineral, and phytochemical content while preserving textural quality. Five formulations were tested, with T0 (control) containing 100% wheat flour, T1 containing 95% wheat flour and 5% muskmelon seed flour, T2 containing 90% wheat flour and 10% muskmelon seed flour, T3 containing 85% wheat flour and 15% muskmelon seed flour, and T4 containing 80% wheat flour and 20% muskmelon seed flour. The effect of substituting wheat flour with muskmelon seed flour on bis-cuit development was assessed by examining physical, proximate, textural, nutritional, and sensory characteristics. The inclusion of muskmelon seed flour significantly increased biscuit thickness (from 53.66 ± 0.68 mm to 73.00 ± 0.36 mm) and hardness (from 18.57 ± 0.03% to 47.61 ± 0.02%) to maintain its proper shape and texture while also enhancing crude protein (from 5.69 ± 0.07% to 16.41 ± 0.08%), ash (1.13 ± 0.01% to 1.70 ± 0.05%), and dietary fiber content (from 1.58 ± 0.03% to 1.88 ± 0.04%). Additionally, the substitution improved total phenolic content (TPC, from 85.52 ± 0.05 to 210.54 ± 0.04 mg GAE/mL), total flavonoid content (TFC, from 54.84 ± 0.09 to 142.28 ± 0.03 mg CE/g), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) inhibition (from 48.63 ± 0.04% to 65.54 ± 0.05%). Among various treatments, T2, which incorporated 10% muskmelon seed flour, was the most acceptable treatment. Further research is recommended to assess sensory characteristics more precisely using trained panelists.