Wheat Dough Research Articles

The impact of bulgur flour on the quality of wheat dough

The work is devoted to the study of the possibility of using perspective material for baking - bulgur flour, which has a valuable chemical composition, high nutritional and biological value. In the course of experimental studies, it was found that the addition of bulgur flour improves the quality of baking flour and semi-finished products. Studies of the impact of bulgur flour on the indicators of gas-forming and gas-holding capacity of wheat dough were conducted using the device Reofermentometer F3, which allows controlling the rate of pressure change of forming carbohydrate dioxide during fermentation.

Starch Fine Molecular Structure Is the Driving Factor for Starch Gelatinization Property in Both Wheat Flour and Wheat Dough

AbstractThe thermal properties of dough are critical for eating and processing quality of wheat flour‐based products. Although the gelatinization properties of wheat starch or flour as affected by starch molecular structures have been investigated, it remains largely unexplored how starch structures determine the gelatinization properties of wheat dough. The gelatinization properties of 10 wheat flours and corresponding doughs with distinct starch fine molecular structures are thus investigated. A parabolic relationship is observed between amylose content and gelatinization temperatures of both wheat flour and dough. Amylopectin molecular size is positively correlated while amylose molecular size negatively correlates with gelatinization onset and peak temperatures of wheat flour. Amylose molecular size is negatively correlated with gelatinization temperatures of wheat dough. Possible mechanisms are further discussed. These results provided first associations between starch molecular structures and thermal properties of wheat dough, and their difference compared to those from wheat flour, which can help the food industry select suitable wheat varieties with improved dough quality.

Влияние комплексной добавки на хлебопекарные свойства муки и теста при брожении

To ensure a balanced diet, bakers use plant-based raw materials with a high nutritional value which affect the properties of flour and dough. We aimed to study the effects of a complex additive based on plant components on wheat flour’s amylolytic activity and gas-forming ability, as well as on the dough’s rise and gas-retaining ability during fermentation.
 Our study objects included premium wheat flour, a water-flour suspension, and wheat dough with a complex additive (at concentrations of 10, 16, and 22% by weight of flour mixtures). The additive contained whole wheat flour, crushed sprouted spelt, powdered pumpkin seeds, oyster mushrooms, and gooseberries at a ratio of 56.3:25.0:17.2:0.9:0.6, respectively. An amylograph-E was used to study the viscosity of the water-flour suspension during heating, an ICHP-1-2 apparatus measured the falling number, and an F4 rheofermentometer assessed the flour’s gas-forming ability and the dough’s rise and gas-retaining ability.
 The complex additive improved the enzymatic activity of the flour, increased the dough rise by an average of 8.4 mm, and reduced the fermentation time needed to reach the maximum height by an average of 17.8%, compared to the control. The total volume of carbon dioxide, as well as the volumes of lost and retained carbon dioxide, increased by an average of 35.8, 99.7, and 26.9%, respectively, compared to the control. The optimal concentration of the complex additive introduced into premium wheat flour was 16%, at which the dough rose to its maximum height and had the longest porosity time. To obtain high-quality products with this concentration of the additive, the total time of dough fermentation and proofing should be reduced by 17.8% compared to the unfortified dough.
 The results can be used in the production of bakery products from premium wheat flour fortified with the complex additive based on plant components. During the process, it is important to determine the duration of dough maturation and reduce the total time of dough fermentation and proofing depending on the concentration of the additive. Further research is needed to study the effect of the complex additive on the structural and mechanical properties of dough during its development.

The Gliadin Hydrolysis Capacity of B. longum, L. acidophilus, and L. plantarum and Their Protective Effects on Caco-2 Cells against Gliadin-Induced Inflammatory Responses.

Non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS) is a poorly understood gluten-related disorder (GRD) and its prominent symptoms can be ameliorated by gluten avoidance. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of a probiotic mixture in hydrolyzing gliadin peptides (toxic components of gluten) and suppressing gliadin-induced inflammatory responses in Caco-2 cells. Wheat dough was fermented with a probiotic mix for 0, 2, 4, and 6 h. The effect of the probiotic mix on gliadin degradation was monitored by SDS-PAGE. The expression levels of IL-6, IL-17A, INF-γ, IL-10, and TGF-β were evaluated using ELISA and qRT-PCR methods. According to our findings, fermenting wheat dough with a mix of B. longum, L. acidophilus, and L. plantarum for 6 h was effective in gliadin degradation. This process also reduced levels of IL-6 (p = 0.004), IL-17A (p = 0.004), and IFN-γ (p = 0.01) mRNA, as well as decreased IL-6 (p = 0.006) and IFN-γ (p = 0.0009) protein secretion. 4 h fermentation led to a significant decrease in IL-17A (p = 0.001) and IFN-γ (p = 0.003) mRNA, as well as reduced levels of IL-6 (p = 0.002) and IFN-γ (p < 0.0001) protein secretion. This process was also observed to increase the expression levels of IL-10 (p < 0.0001) and TGF-β (p < 0.0001) mRNA. 4 h fermentation of wheat flour with the proposed probiotic mix might be a good strategy to develop an affordable gluten-free wheat dough for NCWS and probably other GRD patients.

Wheat Bread Enriched with Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa L.) Pomace: Physicochemical Properties and Sensory Evaluation

Fruit pomace is a highly valuable byproduct from a nutritional standpoint. The aim of this study was to determine the physicochemical and sensory properties of wheat bread enriched with freeze-dried and powdered chokeberry pomace in amounts of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6% relative to the flour weight. The influence of pomace addition on the physical properties of the wheat dough was analyzed, and the physicochemical properties and consumer acceptance of the chokeberry-pomace-enriched bread were determined. Based on the obtained research results, it was shown that the addition of pomace increased the water absorption of the flour but caused a decrease in stability and weakening of the dough, resulting in increased softening. Consequently, the volume of the bread decreased, and the crumb hardness increased. Furthermore, the addition of pomace significantly reduced the brightness and yellowness of the bread crumbs, while making them more red. Importantly, compared to the control bread, the pomace-enriched bread was characterized by higher contents of minerals, dietary fiber, phenolic compounds, and higher antioxidant activity. Sensory evaluation showed that the addition of freeze-dried chokeberry pomace to wheat bread should not exceed 3% in relation to the weight of the flour used. Additionally, a 3% addition of chokeberry pomace increased the dietary fiber content by 80.9%, ash content by 2.6%, fat content by 26.5%, and total phenolics content by 272%. It decreased the protein content by 1.2%, and reduced the carbohydrate content by 4% compared to the control sample.

Characterization of four commercial waxy wheats developed in China

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesAs the interest in use of waxy wheat in food applications continues to grow, it is important to fully understand characteristics of waxy wheats. To the best of our knowledge, there was no previous study reporting a complete characterization of commercial waxy wheats developed in China, especially properties of wheat kernels, dough, wet milling, gluten, and starch. To promote the industrial utilization of waxy wheat, four Chinese commercial waxy wheats were collected and characterized.FindingsFour commercial waxy wheats commercialized in China were sound medium hard wheats. Care must be taken during harvesting and storage of waxy wheats since the waxy wheat flours were very sensitive to the endogenous α‐amylase even at a very low level of enzyme activity. Rapid viscosity analyzer had a good potential for evaluating the sprout damage of waxy wheat. Dough rheological properties and gluten index showed that the four waxy wheats had weak gluten quality, agreeing with wet‐milling performance. The waxy wheat starches had higher onset, peak, and conclusion gelatinization temperatures than normal wheat starch. While the waxy wheat starches showed lower pasting temperature and higher peak viscosity than normal wheat starch.ConclusionsResults suggested that the four commercial waxy wheats varied in kernel characteristics, protein and starch contents, wet‐milling performance, gluten quality, dough rheological properties and pasting properties, which might provide a wide range of applications.Significance and NoveltyThe research work provides useful information for wheat breeders to breed waxy wheat suitable for industrial applications and for scientists to promote the use of waxy wheat flour and starch in food applications.

Superior gluten structure and more small starch granules synergistically confer dough quality for high amylose wheat varieties.

High amylose wheat (HAW) has potential health benefits but its dough structure is usually inferior. Wheat dough is a complex mixture and its structure is influenced by the physicochemical properties of gluten and starch. In this study, we investigated the starch granule development, gluten structure, starch properties, pasting, and thermal properties of flour, as well as the rheological properties of dough in wheat variety Xinong 836 with high amylose content (33.57%) and its parents. The results showed that Xinong 836 wheat starch contained more small starch granules, which was consistent with the microstructural results of starch granules in grain filling stage. Moreover, Xinong 836 wheat starch showed highest swelling power and water solubility. Importantly, the flour of Xinong 836 wheat had the highest protein content and wet gluten content and Xinong 836 wheat gluten showed highest β-sheets content and disulfide bond content than its parents Zhengmai 7698 and Xinong 979, which conferring to more compact microscopic networks of dough, thereby contributing to the higher peak viscosity (PV), final viscosity (FV), and setback viscosity (SB) in the flour of Xinong 836. Our finding elucidated that the stability of gluten and properties of starch synergistically affected the pasting and thermal properties of the flour paste, and the presence of more small starch granules contributed to dough with a rather dense structure in HAW Xinong 836. Thus, superior gluten structure and more small starch granules have synergistic effects on enhancing the gluten-starch interaction, thereby contributing to better dough quality.

Effect of frozen storage on the quality and amylopectin structure of Chinese steamed bread made from different wheat cultivars

The physicochemical properties of wheat flour and the chain-length distributions of amylopectin from eleven cultivars were studied. Chinese steamed bread (CSB) was made by a one-step fermentation procedure using these flours to explore the effects of frozen storage on the qualities of CSB and starch molecular structures. The results indicated that the protein and wet gluten had significant effects on the fermentation rheological properties of wheat dough and CSB qualities. The amylose content and amylopectin structure had important influences on the pasting properties of wheat flour and the firming of CSB. Water loss and migration in CSB during freezing, accompanied by the starch retrogradation, depended on the amylose content and amylopectin structure. After 60-day of frozen storage at −18 °C, the amylopectin extracted from CSB showed decreased fractions of B1 and B2 chains while the long B3 chain and average chain length increased. Moreover, short amylopectin chains were negatively correlated with the hardness of CSB (P < 0.01). These results confirmed that the structure-property relationships of wheat flour have crucial influences on the qualities of CSB, which would benefit our selection of wheat materials for the frozen food industry and provide a reference for wheat breeding.

Characterization and selection of probiotic lactic acid bacteria from different dietary sources for development of functional foods.

Dietary sources have an abundance of bacteria, mainly lactic acid bacteria (LABs), which have long been regarded as probiotics in humans and animals. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been used as probiotic agents due to their ability to produce a variety of beneficial compounds for cultivars and their status as safe microorganisms. In this current study, the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from several dietary sources such as curd, pickle, milk, and wheat dough. The principal focus of this study was to determine the survivability of these microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract and to use promising strains to create probiotic drinks with numerous health benefits. The isolates were identified using a combination of morphological, biochemical, molecular and sugar fermentation patterns, like phenotypic characteristics, sugar fermentation, MR-VP reaction, catalase test, urease test, oxidase test, H2S production, NH3 production synthesis from arginine, citrate utilization, indole test, and 16s rRNA sequencing. Two (CM1 and OS1) of the 60 isolates obtained showed the best probiotic results and were identified as Lactobacillus acidophilus CM1 and Lactobacillus delbrueckii OS1. These organism sequences were submitted to Gen bank with accession numbers OP811266.1 and OP824643.1, respectively. The acid tolerance test results indicated that most strains could survive significantly in an acidic environment with pH levels of 2 and 3. Similarly, the salt tolerance test results showed that both Lactobacillus acidophilus CM1 and Lactobacillus delbrueckii OS1 could survive at 4 and 6% NaCl levels significantly. The isolates also showed their ability to ferment sugars such as lactose xylose, glucose, sucrose, and fructose. In conclusion, the study showed that the bacteria isolated from different food sources were indeed probiotic lactic acid bacteria and had probiotic properties. These isolates hold potential for future research in the formulation of millet-based probiotic beverages. However, further studies are required to confirm their effectiveness and safety in improving human health. This research provides a foundation for developing functional foods and drinks that can positively affect human health by incorporating probiotic microorganism.

A novel kneading method for improving the quality of whole wheat dough and bread

A new kneading method was proposed to improve the quality of whole wheat dough and bread. In the new kneading process, bran was added after the refined flour was mixed with water. LF-NMR results showed that the proportion of bound water increased by 0.98%, and the proportion of immobilized water decreased by 1.06% with the new kneading process; also, the dough dynamic rheological properties showed that G′ and G″ significantly increased. Besides, the content of sulfur-hydrogen bonds (SH) decreased by 39.41%, and the content of disulfide bonds (SS) increased by 16.95%. In addition, significant improvements in bread's specific volume (from 3.19 mL/g to 3.43 mL/g) and texture properties (hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and resilience). Using the new kneading method could allow the gluten to combine with water and improve the gluten network, which improves the quality of whole wheat dough and bread.

A novel process to produce stratified structures in food

A method to create stratified structures with static mixing elements initially developed for the plastic polymer industry is investigated here as a new route for structuring food dispersions. Food dispersions of different viscosities were structured with static mixing elements to investigate the potential of the method for foods. Differently coloured chocolates were used as the model products. The viscosity of the chocolate was controlled through the addition of pea fibre. The first step was the formation of 2–8 layers, with the two differently coloured chocolates. Then, the chocolate dispersions were layered into 256 layers with an approximate layer thickness of 60 μm. Layer formation was facilitated when using similar paste viscosity and when slip was induced through wall coating with vegetable oil. Uniaxial cutting tests of the layered chocolate indicated that layering resulted in different mechanical properties, parallel and perpendicular to the layers. Fibre orientation in the direction of flow was observed, resulting in the potential to induce anisotropy, additional to the layers. The higher viscous dispersions, wheat dough and melt cheese, could also be structured into layers, although the force constraints of the experimental set-up were reached. Mid-stream additions were added to produce strand structures instead of layers, resulting in higher hierarchy structures but less uniformity.

Germinated Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) flour as an ingredient in wheat bread: Physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory properties of bread.

Wheat flour (WF) was substituted with germinated Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) flour (GBF) at different proportions (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%) and used in the preparation of bread. The dough mixing, pasting, and gelatinization properties of the blends were evaluated as well as the nutritional quality, in vitro starch digestibility, phytochemical constituents, antioxidant potential, color, texture, and sensory properties of breads. All the wheat dough containing GBF had higher water absorption capacity, gelatinization temperatures, dough development time, low peak, and setback viscosities. The composite breads had significantly higher dietary fiber, minerals, protein digestibility, corrected amino acid scores, resistant starch, slowly digestible starch, total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activities and caused significant reduction in rapidly digestible starch content. The addition of up to 15% GBF had no significant impact on the specific volume of wheat bread. Substitution of WF with GBF influenced color and texture properties of bread. Wheat bread supplemented with 20% GBF had significantly higher scores in taste, aroma, and overall acceptability. This study demonstrated the potential of GBF as a functional ingredient in bread making. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study provides a suitable possibility of partial substitution of wheat flour with germinated Bambara groundnut, to develop functional and acceptable bread. The dough mixing and pasting results in this study would add to knowledge on the dough handling characteristics as there is limited information regarding the mixing properties of wheat dough with germinated Bambara groundnut.

Starch and Dough-Related Properties of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Exposed to Varying Temperatures and Radiances after Anthesis

With the increase in global warming and solar radiation, the starch quality and dough properties of wheat have also been affected to some negative extent. To prepare for the effects of future climate change, we explored the effects of different temperatures and radiation on the properties of wheat starch and dough. Six sowing dates for four wheat varieties were selected for this study. The seedling population on the first sowing date (S1) was 300 × 104 plants ha−1, which increased by approximately 10% after the subsequent sowing date. The results showed that a delay in sowing time increased the daily mean temperature after anthesis and decreased the effective accumulated temperature and cumulative solar radiation. When the daily mean temperature increased 0.32 °C after anthesis, the total starch content decreased 1.2%, the sedimentation value increased by 14.19 s, the water absorption increased 0.62%, the dough development time increased 0.4 min, and the dough stability time increased 0.28 min. The gelatinization and dough properties of wheat starch were not only related to the daily mean temperature, but were also significantly related to the effective accumulated temperature and cumulative solar radiation. The results showed that the starch and dough properties of wheat are also related to the cumulative radiation temperature after anthesis. Compared with radiation, temperature is the main climatic factor affecting the formation of wheat starch and dough.

Multi-scale dough adhesion analysis: Relation between laboratory scale, pilot scale and human sensory.

Undesired dough adhesion is still a challenge during the production of baked goods. There are various methods for determining the adhesive texture properties of dough. In the majority of scientific papers, dough stickiness is measured analytically by the force-distance recording of dough detachment. In this study, we describe a new multi-scale approach to compare dough adhesion phenomena in a laboratory, pilot sale and human sensory assessment. In it, the adhesive material properties of dough were investigated using a pilot scale toppling device representing dough adhesion behavior in the production process, in the laboratory by texture analysis with the Chen-Hoseney method and furthermore with a new, implemented non-oral human sensory analysis. To simulate different dough adhesion behavior, the dough mechanical and adhesion properties were varied by applying dough-modifying enzymes and different dough storage times. The structural changes in the different wheat dough system were compared by rheological characterization. By characterizing the different adhesion phenomena of the doughs, the sample with bacterial xylanase showed the highest values after 80 min of storage time in all three methods. Correlation analysis revealed a strong relationship between the detachment time (pilot scale) and human sensory assessment attributes (Force R= 0.81, Time R= 0.87, Distance R= 0.92, Stickiness R= 0.80) after 80 min of storage time. Even though human sensory assessment showed limits in the detectability of differences in dough adhesion behavior compared to the Chen-Hoseney method, it was better suited to predict machinability.

Characterization of commercial cricket protein powder and impact of cricket protein powder replacement on wheat dough protein composition

Background and Objectives Supplementation of foods with insect flours has been shown to be promising for improving the nutritional profile of food products. The objective of this study was to characterize two commercially available cricket protein powders and investigate their impact on molecular weight distribution when incorporated into wheat dough. Findings Characterization of commercial cricket protein powders, GrioPro® (G) and Entomo Farms (E) was carried out by size exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (SEC-HPLC), and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The functionality of the cricket protein powders was examined by measuring water holding capacity (WHC) and protein solubility across a range of pH. To see the interactions between the cricket proteins in a food-based system wheat dough samples containing 10% or 20% replacement levels of the cricket powders were collected at peak torque development and analyzed to SEC-HPLC to quantify the change in soluble polymeric proteins (SPP) and insoluble polymeric proteins (IPP) and provide information on changes to protein molecular weight distribution. SDS-PAGE analysis showed bands ranging from 40 kDa to 160 kDa for sample E while sample G had no visible bands either due to poor solubility in SDS-PAGE sample buffer and/or the presence of very high molecular proteins that did not enter the gel. Sample E absorbed approximately 2.5 times its weight in water, which was significantly lower than G (~3.0 times its weight) while sample G was significantly lower in solubility than E across all pH levels. Conclusions Both cricket protein powders increased in WHC and solubility as the pH increased. Wheat dough samples containing sample E had lower peak areas of IPP and no significant difference in SPP peak areas compared to the control. On the other hand, doughs containing sample G had a significant increase in IPP peak areas at the 20% replacement level. Significance and Novelty This study shows how the difference in processing changed the functionality of G and E which impacted their interactions when added to a wheat dough-based system.

Effects of co-fermentation on the release of ferulic acid and the rheological properties of whole wheat dough

In order to improve the poor rheological properties and stability of whole wheat dough (WWD) caused by bran, the co-fermentation technology by Lactobacillus plantarum LB-1 and yeast was used to release ferulic acid (FA) extensively in whole wheat flour and the effect of FA on the rheological qualities of WWD without fermentation was studied, aiming to improve the rheological properties of WWD with FA. The FA content, released extensively by the co-fermentation technology (1307.65 ± 10.26 μg/g), was significantly higher (P＜0.05) than the traditional yeast fermentation (548.51 ± 12.78 μg/g) due to the production of higher levels of cell wall degrading enzymes and organic acids, which could significantly improve the viscoelasticity of WWD. Meanwhile, the resistance to extension of WWDFY was 14.28% higher than that of WWDY, and the extensibility of WWDFY 9.68% better than that of WWDYL. And the WWDFY showed a better recovery stability, a higher hardness, larger elasticity and better water holding capacity compared to WWDY. The results indicated that FA could significantly modify the rheological properties of WWD, providing a theoretical basis for producing whole wheat products with desirable quality.

Grain Quality and Improvement in Wheat and Some Quality Aspect of Pasta Industries in Ethiopia: A Review

Depending on the intended use, quality can relate to a variety of physical and chemical characteristics of the product. Additionally, the standards for judging wheat grain quality attributes are as varied as their various applications. The impacts of some important genes for grain hardness, genes that code for storage proteins, etc., have been well documented. The development of DNA-based markers for desirable qualities is now possible because to the development of molecular biology. Therefore, DNA markers complement traditional breeding techniques, allowing for the quicker development of novel cultivars with desirable traits. Due to the low volume of durum wheat grain, Ethiopian pasta businesses still augment bread wheat flour with colorants and pasta zymes and are negatively impacted by the high import costs. Local farmers are increasing their durum wheat production and supplying high-quality durum wheat grain. Maintaining the grain quality of wheat under climate change is essential for human nutrition, end-use functional qualities, as well as commodity value, but the weak supply chain from the producer to the manufacturer is affecting both. Wheat yield can rise by up to 36% under conditions of high CO₂, however grain protein concentrations often decline and a change in composition results in fewer useful qualities. Crops that are post-anthesis can have a step-change drop in grain-set, grain size, and milling yield due to high temperatures. Wheat dough has lower viscoelasticity qualities because high temperature stress affects the glutenin/gliadin ratio and restricts the synthesis of the bigger sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-insoluble glutenin polymers. The current understanding of the effects of high temperatures and elevated atmospheric CO₂on the whole-grain and functional properties of wheat, as well as the recent development of molecular markers and their use in breeding programs, particularly to improve traits relating to wheat grain, are reviewed in this paper. Finally, a few aspects of the Ethiopian pasta industry are discussed.

Effects of pomelo peel sponge layer insoluble dietary fibre addition on the properties of the dough and bread

SummaryIn this study, the influences of different proportions (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% w/w) of pomelo peel sponge layer insoluble dietary fibre (PP‐IDF) on the technological quality, structural character and sensory evaluation of wheat dough and bread were studied. Results showed that the addition of PP‐IDF improved the viscoelasticity of dough and reduced its enthalpy of freezing–thawing. Meanwhile, PP‐IDF significantly improved the quality of bread during storage. Compared with the control, the 7‐day moisture rate of bread containing PP‐IDF increased by 3.50–6.80%, indicating that PP‐IDF retarded the staling process of bread. Moreover, SEM images showed that the bread prepared using PP‐IDF had a more heterogeneous crumb microstructure, and the higher the addition level of PP‐IDF, the larger the void structure. The results of the texture profile analysis indicated that the hardness and chewiness of bread increased with the incorporation of PP‐IDF, suggesting that the addition of PP‐IDF had a negative effect on the texture property of bread. Furthermore, the sensory evaluation of bread was performed, and the taste of the bread was better when PP‐IDF addition content was 5–10%. The results of this study revealed that PP‐IDF had great potential for the development of innovative bread recipes.

Strain-dependent assessment of dough's polymer structure and functionality during the baking process.

During the baking process, the functionality of the heterogeneous dough matrix changes as the composing polymers experience conformational transition processes. The thermally induced structural changes affect the involvement and functionality of the polymers in the dough matrix. With the main hypothesis being that different types and magnitudes of strain exerted during the measurement would provide information on different structural levels and interactions, SAOS rheology in multiwave mode and large deformation extensional rheometry were applied to two microstructurally different systems. The functionality of the two systems, a highly connected standard wheat dough (φ ≈ 1.1) and an aerated, yeasted wheat dough (φ ≈ 2.3), depicting limited connectivity and strength of interactions, was accessed under different deformations and types of strains. Applying SAOS rheology, starch functionality prevailed on the behavior of the dough matrix. In contrast, gluten functionality prevailed the large deformation behavior. Using an inline fermentation and baking LSF technique, the heat-induced gluten polymerization was shown to increase strain hardening behavior above 70°C. In the aerated system, the strain hardening effect became already evident under small deformation testing, as the expansion of gas cells caused a pre-expansion of the gluten strands. The expanded dough matrix of yeasted dough was further shown to be substantially subjected to degradation once the network reached beyond its maximal gas holding capacity. Using this approach, the combined impact of yeast fermentation and thermal treatment on the strain hardening behavior of wheat dough was revealed for the first time by LSF. Furthermore, the rheological properties were successfully linked to oven rise behavior: a decreasing connectivity combined with the initiation of strain hardening by fast extension processes occurring in the yeasted dough matrix during the final baking phase was linked to limited oven rise functionality prematurely around 60°C.

Impact of Fusarium Head Blight on Wheat Flour Quality: Examination of Protease Activity, Technological Quality and Rheological Properties

Wheat infections caused by Fusarium represent a global agricultural problem that reduces grain yield and negatively impacts wheat’s technological and rheological quality. Although fungal proteases or an increase in endogenous proteases due to Fusarium infection could negatively influence wheat storage proteins and dough performance, little research has been performed on either of these topics. The primary objective of this study was to identify the effect of Fusarium infection on protease activity in 25 wheat cultivars grown in two distinct locations in eastern Croatia. Apart from proteolytic activity, this paper describes the impact of Fusarium head blight (FHB) infection on the technological quality parameters of wheat flour and the dough’s rheological properties. The first treatment consisted of naturally grown, healthy wheat without fungicides, while the second treatment utilized wheat varieties subjected to intense FHB infection. Protein and wet gluten content in wheat grain and flour of uninfected cultivars were heavily influenced by testing location, soil type, and quality. Fusarium infection increased the activity of nonspecific proteases by 43% in flour samples from Osijek and 125% in flour samples from Tovarnik. Estimates of effect size showed that FHB infection had twice as big an effect on protease activity in Tovarnik as in Osijek, and a similar trend was found for dough softening. Moreover, the infection significantly impacted wheat cultivars’ extensograph values, indicating a lower resistance to stretching, extensibility, and total stretching energy in infected flour samples, indicating that dough functionality and volume loss can be attributed to exogenous fungal proteases. Still, the magnitude of the effect varied depending on the growth location and the cultivar’s traits. Multivariate data analysis identified three clusters of wheat cultivars, each with varying degrees of the Fusarium infection’s effects. Some cultivars displayed consistent protease activity and flour quality across sites. In contrast, others showed variability in their responses due to environmental conditions. To conclude, genetic resistance could provide adequate control of FHB, guaranteeing the successful protection of wheat quality. However, the possibility of confounding factors influencing genetic and cultivation conditions must be considered, and further research is needed to understand their interaction.