Wetlands Of Bangladesh Research Articles

Management strategies of translocated pondweed Monochoria hastata and its ecological and economic impacts

Understanding the impacts of, and options for, controlling invasive species is crucial to their management. Wetlands are a widely invaded ecosystem, since dispersal of aquatic species is facilitated by seasonal flooding. This study evaluated the effects of the translocated pondweed Monochoria hastata on fish and rice production in two wetlands of Bangladesh over six years (2017-2022). Fish and rice production were compared between control (negligible M. hastata) and three treatments under different M. hastata management methods comprising manual-, herbicide- and mechanical-treatment. Density of M. hastata increased significantly in all treatment groups over time in both wet and dry seasons. However, M. hastata density was lower by 270% in the dry season than the wet season. For fishes, a negative relationship between M. hastata density and fish production was recorded for snakeheads and catfishes, the most saleable fishes, whereas a mixed pattern was recorded for barbs and minnows across treatments. A positive relationship occurred between the density of M. hastata and production of the most common fish, mud eel, and therefore, the overall fish production increased in all treatment groups. Compared to control plots, rice production was lower in M. hastata infested plot groups. Among the M. hastata infested plot groups, rice production in herbicide-and mechanical-treatment groups was similar but lower than the manual-treatment group. Although manual-treatment plots yielded greater rice production, the weed management cost was also higher. This study provides evidence that translocated M. hastata can be of an invasive nature and impact rice production, not only by reducing yield but also by increasing the production costs through additional management for M. hastata control. Its presence in wetlands in Bangladesh can increase overall fish production due to the overriding influence of increased mud eel yield which has little demand locally but can decrease the species of high demand (e.g. snakehead and catfish). None of the existing control measures are effective in controlling M. hastata. Further research is needed on better management approaches for both agricultural and fish production in areas invaded by M. hastata.

Fish diversity indices of Hail Haor, a subtropical wetland in the north‐east region of Bangladesh: Diversity influencing factors and recommendations

AbstractOne of the largest wetlands in Bangladesh's north‐east, Hail Haor supports a variety of aquatic habitats and has a diversified ecosystem. To ascertain the fish diversity indices of Hail Haor, this study was carried out month by month from December 2020 to June 2021. For this study, three sampling sites in the Moulvi Bazar district—Chiruadobi Beel, Gopla River and Balla Beel were chosen from which fish samples were collected. Twenty‐five different fish species were identified and 12,076 fish (individual numbers) were counted and categorized. The Shannon diversity index varied from 1.33 to 1.65. Hail Haor's species diversity index is moderate by the index standard. The Shannon evenness index (E) varied from .41 to .51. The Depressed Community is present in the Hail Haor species diversity index, as per the index standard. The Simpson dominance index fluctuated from .56 to .72. The species diversity index of Hail Haor contains moderate dominance, as per the index standard. With the help of local retailers, fishers, and other relevant stakeholders, the FGD identified factors that have an impact on the diversity index. The current study on diversity indices will be highly beneficial for formulating strategy and managing Hail Haor by strictly adhering to the recommendations.

Seasonal variation and fish assemblage at Hakaluki Haor, Moulvibazar, Bangladesh

Wetlands in Bangladesh have undergone rapid degradation, primarily attributable to a range of factors. These factors include a marked increase in population, extensive water diversion for irrigation purposes, depletion of swamp forests, as well as other natural and anthropogenic causes. Hakaluki Haor is a vast wetland area located at North East in Bangladesh provides habitat for a diverse range of fish species. Due to natural and anthropogenic causes, fish species are declining in the Hakaluki Hoar. Fish species are declining primarily due to the utilization of harmful gear, the drying of beels every year, and overexploitation. The aim of the research was to assess the occurrence of various fish species in different seasons, their distribution, and conservation status. The research was carried out over the course of three seasons (summer, autumn, and winter) spanning from September 2017 to August 2018. The study utilized a mixed methodology approach to investigate the fish assemblage, which included examining the fish catch on boats along with the fish available in the nearest assembling center (fish market). In addition, the Shannon-Weaver index was followed to recognize the species diversity (H), richness (D), and Evenness (e). The research documented the presence of 64 fish species that were classified into 25 different genera, and 24 families across 10 orders. The order Cypriniformes was the most prevalent, constituting 42% of the total number of species identified. Other orders such as Siluriformes (22%), Perciformes (16%), Channiformes (6%), and Clupeiformes (5%) also demonstrated a considerable variety of fish species, although Cypriniformes had the highest dominance with 42% of the total species documented. Additionally, the research determined that among the complete assemblage of fish species identified, a total of 14 (18.88%) were classified as species facing threats. Based on the analysis, 6.25% are vulnerable, 12.5% endangered, and 3.12% are critically endangered as per IUCN Redlist. The research observed the Shannon-Weaver diversity (H), richness (D), and evenness (e) values for the fish species, which were found to be 2.47, 6.28, and 0.65, respectively. Moreover, participants retorted that the present income from fishing had decreased as compared to five years ago. The research finds that anthropogenic pressure is one of the key reasons to fish decline at Hakaluki Haor. According to the findings of the current research, community-based wetland conservation and management have been proposed as a viable and sustainable strategy for augmenting the fish species abundance.

Expansion of aquaculture threatens the existence of wetlands in Bangladesh

Despite positive role of aquaculture in food production, the practice may impact the environment negatively and it is difficult to quantify the loss. In this study, we assessed land use changes in four important wetlands (Hardoho Beel, Angrar Beel, Shaoil Beel and Gopalpur Beel) of Bangladesh through analysis of historical satellite images (1990 – 2020) to show how expansion of aquaculture activities threatens the existence of freshwater wetlands. Since 1990, the water area of all four wetlands decreased significantly over time (all p < 0.001). Mean yearly loss of 47.9 ± 79.3 ha, 99.2 ± 185.5 ha, 51.2 ± 61.9 ha and 2.6 ± 4.7 ha were recorded for Hardoho Beel, Angrar Beel, Shaoil Beel and Gopalpur Beel respectively. A decreasing trend in wetland area was recorded in all wetlands, primarily due to excavation of aquaculture ponds. In 2020, aquaculture ponds represented 72% of the core wetland areas. Two wetlands (Hardoho and Gopalpur) were almost totally lost and converted to aquaculture ponds and agricultural lands. This study concludes that the existence of freshwater wetlands in Bangladesh is at stake and recommends further studies to determine its impacts on people's livelihood and biodiversity.

Reproductive aspects of Anabas testudineus collected from the Gajner Beel wetland in Bangladesh: implications for its conservation under changing eco-climatic conditions and suggestions for best aquaculture practice.

The freshwater climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, is an economically and nutritionally valuable food fish. This study explores the various reproductive contents (size at sexual maturity, reproductive period and fecundity) of A. testudineus in the Gajner Beel concerning the eco-climatic variabilities and suggests sustainable management policies. A total of 709 individuals were randomly collected from January to December 2019 among 371 females that were sorted out for this study. Total length (TL) ranged from 7.50 to 16.40cm. Based on the maximum length (Lmax), TL vs. gonadosomatic index (GSI), TL-standard length (SL) regression and logistic model, the size at sexual maturity (Lm) was 10.00cm, 10.40cm, 11.00cm and 11.50cm, respectively. The spawning season was May to August and peaked in June-July. The Fulton's condition (KF) was suggested as the best condition factor (p < 0.0001), and relative weight (WR) showed no significant difference from 100 for females (p = 0.143). Fecundity was ranged from 9459 to 35,915. A significant relationship was observed between GSI and temperature (p = 0.0016), dissolved oxygen (DO) (p < 0.0001), pH (p < 0.0001), alkalinity (p < 0.001) and climatic parameters (air temperature, p < 0.001 and rainfall, p < 0.001). The data series of 48years (1971-2019) revealed that the rise of average air temperature by 0.029°C and the reduction of rainfall by 2.96mm per year might shift the spawning season of A. testudineus 15-20 later. Therefore, this study will be helpful for the sustainable management and conservation of the wild stocks of A. testudineus in the Gajner Beel and adjoining ecosystems.

Land-Use and Land-Cover Change Detection in a North-Eastern Wetland Ecosystem of Bangladesh Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques

Lakshmibaur-Nalair Haor, a freshwater wetland ecosystem is situated in the north-eastern region of Bangladesh. This place hosts the second largest freshwater swamp forest in Bangladesh. Containing rich biodiversity, this unique area experiences significant landscape changes. This study examines land-use and land-cover (LULC) changes between 1989 and 2019 in the Lakshmibaur-Nalair Haor area by operating Landsat multispectral imageries through remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) techniques. The changing status of the haor was analyzed by initiating normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and modified normalized difference water index (MNDWI). The unsupervised classification technique was implemented to classify these images into five major classes (vegetation, cropland, bare soil, shallow water, and deep water bodies) using threshold values of NDVI and MNDWI. After accuracy assessment, the post-classification comparison method was performed to evaluate the change detection. This study demonstrates that this valuable area lost ~ 2208.6 ha (37.54%) of the deep water body and 489.6 ha (8.34%) of vegetation over the last 3 decades. However, it has gained about 1729 ha (29.39%) of cropland, 2673 ha (45.44%) of shallow water and 1124 ha (28%) of bare soil. Such changes indicate significant human interventions such as expansion of croplands with increased population pressure. Gradual change of deep water into shallow water over time is enabling local community to expand agricultural lands and activities during the dry season. This study’s findings are useful in understanding and tracking changes in wetlands in Bangladesh and other similar settings.

Developing Strategies for Wetland Resources Management-A Policy Implication for a South-western Coastal Wetland in Bangladesh

Developing Strategies for Wetland Resources Management-A Policy Implication for a South-western Coastal Wetland in Bangladesh

Decline in fish species diversity due to climatic and anthropogenic factors in Hakaluki Haor, an ecologically critical wetland in northeast Bangladesh

This study evaluates changes in fish species diversity over time in Hakaluki Haor, an ecologically critical wetland in Bangladesh, and the factors affecting this diversity. Fish species diversity data were collected from fishers using participatory rural appraisal tools and the change in the fish species diversity was determined using Shannon-Wiener, Margalef's Richness and Pielou's Evenness indices. Principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted with a dataset of 150 fishers survey to characterize the major factors responsible for the reduction of fish species diversity. Out of 63 fish species, 83% of them were under the available category in 2008 which decreased to 51% in 2018. Fish species diversity indices for all 12 taxonomic orders in 2008 declined remarkably in 2018. The first PCA (climatic change) responsible for the reduced fish species diversity explained 24.05% of the variance and consisted of erratic rainfall (positive correlation coefficient 0.680), heavy rainfall (−0.544), temperature fluctuation (0.561), and beel siltation (0.503). The second PCA was anthropogenic activity, including the use of harmful fishing gear (0.702), application of urea to harvest fish (0.673), drying beels annually (0.531), and overfishing (0.513). Finally, the third PCA was loaded with the fishermen age (0.719), education (−0.767), and fishing experience (0.695) of the fishers. Deepening of beels could enhance dry season water availability and shelter the fish. Imposing fisheries regulations to reduce human activities is inevitable to sustain haor fisheries.

Evaluation of Fisheries Management Techniques in Three Wetlands in Bangladesh

Aim: To evaluate the impact of community-based co-management and fisheries management techniques on fisheries production and biodiversity in three large wetlands in Bangladesh.&#x0D; Study Design: A robust catch assessment approach to measure fisheries production, species composition and biodiversity in large wetlands.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: The study sites are located in three wetlands in Bangladesh, namely Hail Haor, Kangsha-Malijhee and Turag-Bangshi for a period of two years (2010 and 2011) covering MACH and IPAC working area.&#x0D; Methodology: Species wise catch and efforts by gear type was monitored through the regular sampling to estimate the annual total catch and fishing effort. Randomly selected samples of the catch by species and effort by gear are recorded for each gear type observed to be operated on the same day. The numbers and weight of all fish species in the catch were recorded. The study also compared results in the last years of MACH initiatives to observe the status of fisheries production (kg/ha) and biodiversity Index (H´).&#x0D; Results: The study indicated that the 2011 annual fish production (kg/ha) increased by 125 and 271% compared to the baseline survey in 1999 in Hail Haor and Kangsho-Malijhee respectively. The results suggested that Hail Haor and Kangsha-Malijhee wetlands showed considerably enriched biodiversity over 12 years, whilst, Turag-Bangshi showed upwards from 1999 to 2006 and decreased in 2010 and 2011. In 2010, fish production was 393, 322 and 139 kg/ha, and in 2011 fishes production was 370, 556 and 88 kg/ha in Hail Haor, Kangsho-Malijhee and Turagh-Bangshi wetlands, respectively.&#x0D; Conclusions: The assessment indicated that the overall fish production and biodiversity has been improved due to community-based co-management and this lesson could be replicated widely to sustain wetland resources.

Rapid deterioration of wetland in Bangladesh: a scenario of Noikandi Beel

Wetland aggregates at least a part of human heritage. It has direct impact on human culture and society. Besides, wetland comprises significant components in the context of local and national biodiversity. Beel wetland is a unique environment of floral and faunal association. In Bangladesh, wetland plays a vital role in its economic, industrial, ecological, socioeconomic and cultural attitudes. A study was conducted in the Noikandi beel where rapid destruction was observed due to anthropogenic activities. In the present study, seasonality and macro aquatic diversity and of the Noikandi beel Bangladesh was examined. Plant materials were collected from the beel once in a month for a period of 24 months. In the first 12 months, a total of 52 taxa have been recorded. Among them 40.38% was aquatic, 46.77% amphibians and 13.46% were found to be terrestrial. In addition, a rare taxon Euryale ferox Salisb was found. In the consecutive year of the study, 22.03% were aquatic, 52.54% terrestrial, 22.03% amphibians and1.69% was found to be macro algae. The rapid disappearance of aquatic plants is alarming. On the contrary, a good number of plants have been noted that is not associated with wetland environment indicating the transformation of wetland in to terrestrial ecosystem. Along with declining water depth and siltation other anthropogenic activities, agricultural, developmental initiatives have been identified as major threats, towards the Noikandi beel. The recommendations of the present study could be implemented by the government with the help of local people, as well as, this information may be useful for other beels of Bangladesh.J. bio-sci. 24: 33-43, 2016

Replication and pathogenic potential of influenza A virus subtypes H3, H7, and H15 from free-range ducks in Bangladesh in mammals

Surveillance of wild aquatic birds and free-range domestic ducks in the Tanguar Haor wetlands in Bangladesh has identified influenza virus subtypes H3N6, H7N1, H7N5, H7N9, and H15N9. Molecular characterization of these viruses indicates their contribution to the genesis of new genotypes of H5N1 influenza viruses from clade 2.3.2.1a that are dominant in poultry markets in Bangladesh as well as to the genesis of the highly pathogenic H5N8 virus currently causing disease outbreaks in domestic poultry in Europe and the Middle East. Therefore, we studied the antigenicity, replication, and pathogenicity of influenza viruses isolated from Tanguar Haor in the DBA/2J mouse model. All viruses replicated in the lung without prior mammalian adaptation, and H7N1 and H7N9 viruses caused 100% and 60% mortality, respectively. H7N5 viruses replicated only in the lungs, whereas H7N1 and H7N9 viruses also replicated in the heart, liver, and brain. Replication and transmission studies in mallard ducks showed that H7N1 and H7N9 viruses replicated in ducks without clinical signs of disease and shed at high titers from the cloaca of infected and contact ducks, which could facilitate virus transmission and spread. Our results indicate that H7 avian influenza viruses from free-range ducks can replicate in mammals, cause severe disease, and be efficiently transmitted to contact ducks. Our study highlights the role of free-range ducks in the spread of influenza viruses to other species in live poultry markets and the potential for these viruses to infect and cause disease in mammals.

Aerial Extent Analysis and Environmental Problems Identification of Matasagar and Sukhsagar Wetlands in Bangladesh Using GIS and Remote Sensing Tools

Bangladesh is a land of wetlands. Basically, most of them are freshwater wetlands and have great influence on the primary economic activities such as agriculture and fisheries of the country. Due to its important role in the harmonizing ecosystem, wetlands demand much attention as a significant part of our environment. Matasagar and Sukhsagar are very important historical wetlands of Bangladesh. But those are endangered today due to lack of public awareness of the dangers of their activities to the environment and unbridled profit making activities of the commercial users of the wetlands. Comparisons of maps and Google images from 1933 to present have shown that the forest areas of the wetlands have been progressively destroyed, and these have greatly affected the biodiversity of these areas mentioned. GIS (Geographic Information System) and remote sensing techniques are used to identify the changes in the aerial extent of those wetlands. This study also tried to explore present environmental conditions by in-situ observation. This is high time; some serious steps should be taken to ensure the conservation and preservation of these areas mentioned.

Prevalence and diversity of avian haematozoan parasites in wetlands of bangladesh.

The parasites of genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, and Leucocytozoon are well-known avian haematozoa and can cause declined productivity and high mortality in wild birds. The objective of the study was to record the prevalence of haematozoan parasites in a wide range of wetland birds in Bangladesh. Six species of Haemoproteus, seven species of Plasmodium, one unidentified species of Leucocytozoon, and one unidentified microfilaria of the genus Paronchocerca were found. Data on the morphology, size, hosts, prevalence, and infection intensity of the parasites are provided. The overall prevalence among the birds was 29.5% (95 out of 322 birds). Of those, 13.2% (42 of 319) of birds were infected with Haemoproteus spp., 15.1% with Plasmodium spp. (48 of 319) and 0.6% with Leucocytozoon spp. (2 of 319). Two birds were positive for both Haemoproteus sp. and Plasmodium sp. A single resident bird, Ardeola grayii, was found positive for an unidentified microfilaria. Prevalence of infection varied significantly among different bird families. Wild birds of Bangladesh carry several types of haematozoan parasites. Further investigation with a larger sample size is necessary to estimate more accurately the prevalence of haematozoan parasites among wild birds as well as domestic ducks for better understanding of the disease ecology.

Economic valuation of the non-use attributes of a south-western coastal wetland in Bangladesh

Being located in the south-western hydrological region of Bangladesh, Chanda Beel, a coastal freshwater wetland, is threatened by over-exploitation of resources. Therefore, this study made an attempt to estimate the non-use values of the wetland to realise its hidden values. The study used the contingent valuation method (CVM) method to place a value on the non-use attributes of the wetland and the results show that the non-use value is approximately US$ 0.48 million annually. The effects of socio-economic factors on willingness to pay (WTP) were also examined. Finally, the paper concludes that the estimated non-use values need to be incorporated for a better management of the wetland resources.

Integrating ecosystem services and climate change responses in coastal wetlands development plans for Bangladesh

This study explores the integration of ecosystem services and climate change adaptation in development plans for coastal wetlands in Bangladesh. A new response framework for adaptation is proposed, based on an empirical analysis and consultations with stakeholders, using a modified version of the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact- Response) framework. The framework is tested in the Narail district of Bangladesh, where temperature has increased by about 1 °C in the summer in combination with an increase in rainfall of 0.70 mm day −1 yr −1 in the last decade. Calibrated model (MAGICC/SENGEN) projections forecast, on average, a temperature increase of up to 5 °C and an increase in rainfall of 25 % by the end of this century. Water diversion in the upstream regions of the Ganges River delta contributes to increase water scarcity in the dry season. Enhanced rainfall and the immense pressure of water discharges from upstream water sources are increasing the risk of floods and river erosion in thedry season. Anincrease in thewater holding capacity of rivers, wetlandsand canals by dredging is urgently required. The empirical model ofthisstudy isintended tosupport adaptation planning and monitoring in Bangladesh and can be used in other data-poor areas which will suffer from climate change.

Modeling of freshwater wetland management strategies for building the public awareness at local level in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a large aerial extent of freshwater wetlands for her deltaic characteristics. In 1970, the total area of wetlands in Bangladesh is estimated to be 70000–80000 km2, approximately, i.e., 50 % of total national land area. In the recent years, most of these wetlands are being lost and degraded primarily because of flood control projects, irrigation and agricultural activities and others human interference. Unfortunately, over the last three decades in the name of wetland development, local habitats were not taken care of. In this paper, the stakeholder and scenario analyses are employed for measuring public views towards wetlands degradation in Bangladesh. Involvement of stakeholders helps reconcile their different conflicting interests in wetlands, hence creating a common understanding about the problem under study. An exploratory scenario analysis illustrates different themes fulfilled by the wetlands and their associated services in case study Chalan Beel. The Chalan Beel once covered an area of approximately 651,230 acres in 1967. Currently, the permanent flooded area of the Chalan Beel has been reduced to about 18,120 acres. The scenarios show that most of the wetlands in Bangladesh are converted into agricultural lands, settlements, roads, and highways. Aquatic plants and animals are lost and endangered due to human interference and natural disturbance. The government, policymakers and some private organizations are trying to design suitable policy for wetland management but they are not able to reach this goal. It is observed that the local and national policies are facing complexities to create an effective regime to set aside the wetlands management policy in Bangladesh. In this context, this paper proposed an Increased Public Awareness (IPA) policy model that could be pathways for both short and long-term solutions of wetlands degradation in developing nations like Bangladesh.

Threatened wetlands and ecologically sensitive ecosystems management in Bangladesh

Wetlands constitute a part of human heritage. It has played a significant role in the development of human culture and society. More over it contains very rich components of biodiversity of local, national, and regional significance. They also provide habitat for a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, a significant number of endangered species, and a large number of commercially important species. Mangrove wetlands are unique environments of floral-faunal assemblages, providing a complex detritus-based food-web for a number of marine and brackish water organisms. Wetlands in Bangladesh have great importance for the country’s economic, industrial, ecological, socioeconomic, and cultural aspects. There are five types of wetlands available in Bangladesh, such as saltwater wetlands, freshwater wetlands, palustrine wetlands, lacustrine wetlands, and manmade wetlands. There are 43 designated wetlands, and some are under threat from indiscriminate utilization, encroachments and reclamation, urbanization and drawbacks from agricultural development, and flood control. Almost 50% of the country’s people are directly dependent on wetlands resources. The vast majority of the poor people in the wetlands areas are dependent on wetlands resources for their nourishment. Wetlands have potential and have been recognized as a driving force for biodiversity conservation and rural socioeconomic improvement. Smart-use of wetlands can solve the ecosystems problems in the floodplain areas. A comprehensive analysis of the various issues leading to wetlands degradation is made in this study. The country needs an adequate interdisciplinary policy and political will to implement it for sustainable management and protection of wetlands and ecologically sensitive ecosystems in Bangladesh. Therefore, a reliable data bank is provided in this study to enhance the conservation measures initiated by the Government.

Integrating biological conservation into management: Community adaptive learning in the wetlands of Bangladesh

Wetlands in Bangladesh represent complex, dynamic natural environments rich in biological diversity and providing a range of ecosystem services to local people. Capture fisheries are a direct link between biodiversity and the poor, but have been declining from overexploitation and wetland degradation. Since 2007 a network of 250 community based organisations (CBOs) across the country has shown a growing interest in managing wetlands for the benefit of poor people, motivated to use their local knowledge and capabilities in collective action to manage wetland resources in ways that conserve biodiversity. Adaptive learning between CBOs has spread good practices to sustain biodiversity and thereby the livelihoods of the poor dependent on fish and other aquatic resources. By now, 59% of CBOs have created small fish sanctuaries, 10% have re-introduced scarce fish, a third of CBOs have banned hunting and a few have added a supplementary income from tourism. By developing and sharing their own knowledge of local ecosystem dynamics and related good practices, tangible ecological and developmental benefits have been derived, increasing the well-being of local people. In 91% of sites local people consider the CBO has improved access of the poor to natural resources. In many cases the main threats faced by CBOs have come from external factors: attempts by the powerful to take control of fisheries away from CBOs; pressure to pay government to lease waterbodies; and uncoordinated and unregulated development that blocks fish movement, drains and pollutes wetlands. As such, these are challenges of governance rather than management. The needs of the poor are represented by the CBOs (64% of members are poor, and almost all CBOs consult with the poor in decision making). By networking together, the CBOs are empowered to actively address these challenges and influence policy and practice to address conservation and poverty issues.

The Strategy of Empowering Poor for Wetland Resources Conservation in Bangladesh

The Management of Aquatic Ecosystems through Community Husbandry was demonstrated in three wetlands of Bangladesh that facing a wide range of ecological threats, representing the users’ communities of the management areas to participate in the process of wetland governance for restoring resources. A long-term study from 1999 to 2008 was conducted with 5,202 households’ members forming 250 Resources User Groups to launch livelihood schemes for alternative income and to reduce dependency on wetland resources. The Resources User Groups were united into 13 Federations of Resources User Groups for institutional sustainability that took over all responsibilities for operating savings of their members and revolving funds for livelihood activities and adopting sustainable conservation measures of wetland resources with oversight provided by the co-management committees. The process of developing management capacities made them efficient and knowledgeable to implement all sorts of activities and to overcome problems. Ownership of the savings and the revolving funds developed confidence, selfidentity and skills and boosted up economic empowerment. Adoption of livelihood activities created self-employment opportunities of users for alternative means of earnings that reduced dependency on wetlands to let the resources reestablish. Cohesiveness among the members, networking between community institutions and linked up with comanagement committees and service providers generated an effective social capital. The resources users were empowered with a collective effort to build institutions and implement sustainable use practices resulting in wetland resilience of the resources.

State and management of wetlands in Bangladesh

Wetlands are a vital link between land and water in Bangladesh. A majority of the people of Bangladesh are critically dependent on wetlands. In this paper, the values of wetlands, causes and effects of wetlands degradation, as well as the present wetlands management approach, are analyzed and recommendations for wetlands management are suggested based on participatory rural appraisal (PRA), field visit, personal experience, and existing literature and information. Wetlands play a crucial role in maintaining the ecological balance of ecosystems, but wetlands habitat of Bangladesh is under constant threat due to increase of population, intensive agriculture, overfishing, siltation, pollution, ill-planned infrastructures, lack of institutional coordination, lack of awareness, etc. As a result biodiversity is reducing, many species of flora and fauna are threatened, wetlands-based ecosystem is degenerating, and the living conditions of local people are deteriorating as livelihoods, socioeconomic institutions, and cultural values are affected. Wetlands management is not addressed separately in water management activities of Bangladesh. In order to balance human needs and wetlands conservation, a mainly community-based wetlands management approach has been taken in Bangladesh, but this is not enough to prevent the degradation of wetlands. Therefore, Bangladesh now needs a comprehensive strategy combining political, economic, social, and technological approaches to stop further degradation of wetlands. Therefore, wetlands management should be incorporated into a system of integrated land and water use and, indeed, into the socioeconomic system of the country. Policies, strategies, and management plans for sustainable use and conservation of wetlands of Bangladesh must be based on solid knowledge and understanding of their ecological and socioeconomic functions and processes.