Westward-propagating Eddies Research Articles

Contrasting Westward and Eastward Propagating Mesoscale Eddies in the Global Ocean

Although the zonal propagation of mesoscale eddies is intrinsically westward in oceans worldwide, eddies occasionally propagate eastward. Westward propagating eddies (WPEs) and eastward propagating eddies (EPEs) have distinctively different characteristics. In this article, the propagation features of WPEs and EPEs were studied using a combination of current, wind, and topographical data. We found that, except for in the North Atlantic, the energetic areas for WPEs and EPEs did not overlap. Furthermore, the propagation channels of WPEs and EPEs were located at different depths. The magnitude of change in current and wind stress simultaneously affected both the spread direction and velocity of eddies. The average translation speeds of eddies increased as subsurface current velocity increased, regardless of the angle between the direction of eddy propagation and flow. Compared with WPEs, increases in wind stress had little effect on the propagation speeds of EPEs. The directions of EPEs were more sensitive to changes in flow and wind speed. Even small changes in bathymetry slowed the propagation speeds of eddies. This topographical inhibition was biggest when the topographic gradients were around 0.02 and 0.04 for WPEs and EPEs, respectively. The propagation directions of EPEs were also sensitive to the surrounding terrain and tended to move along seamounts and ridges. These findings may refine eddy predictions and aid eddy observations in the future.

Investigating mesoscale eddy characteristics in the Luzon Strait region using altimetry

The circulation in the northern South China Sea (SCS) strongly responds to anticyclonic eddies that shed from the Kuroshio intruding across Luzon Strait. An eddy tracking algorithm was applied to 26 years of altimetry data to better quantify the surface characteristics of eddies in and near the Luzon Strait with an emphasis on eddies with significant westward propagation across the northern SCS. Spatial mean eddy characteristics revealed that the most robust anticyclonic eddies are in the region of 20–22° N and 118–120° E (where eddies have been observed to shed from the Kuroshio into the northern SCS) and in the North Pacific Gyre east of the Luzon Strait (18–22° N, 121–124° E). The composite structure of mesoscale eddies revealed stronger, more high-amplitude eddies east of the Kuroshio for both circulation types, which was true in all seasons but the starkest contrast was during the summer monsoon. We then isolated the ten farthest westward-propagating eddies that generated in the Luzon Strait region. The majority of these long-propagating eddies occurred during the boreal fall and winter when the cyclonic basin-scale circulation was conducive to eddy propagation along the Chinese shelf break. Using the Kuroshio South China Sea Index (KSI), we find that a highly viable condition for generation of North Pacific Gyre eddies that propagated westward across the Luzon Strait was found when the Kuroshio bifurcates with one branch into the northern SCS and the other northward along eastern Taiwan. In this state, an anticyclonic eddy can generate east of the Kuroshio and be advected into the SCS.

Dynamics of summer monsoon current around Sri Lanka

From June–September, the summer monsoon current (SMC) flows eastward south of Sri Lanka and bends northeastward to form a swift jet that enters the Bay of Bengal (BoB). This part of SMC serves as the major component of the water exchange between the Arabian Sea and the BoB, maintaining the salt and freshwater of the North Indian Ocean. The processes that determine the evolution, intensification, and meandering of the SMC involve both local and remote forcing by winds. Interactions of the SMC with westward-propagating Rossby waves and eddies are only partly understood. In this study, we investigate these processes using an Indian Ocean general circulation model (MOM4p1) that is capable of simulating the SMC realistically. Because eddies and meanders are smoothed out in the climatology, our analyses focus on a single year of 2009, a period when a strong anticyclonic bend in the SMC was observed. An eddy-kinetic-energy budget analysis shows the region to be a zone of significant eddy activity, where both barotropic and baroclinic instabilities are active. Based on the analysis, we classify the evolution of SMC into stages of onset, intensification, anticyclonic bend, anticyclonic vortex formation, meandering, and termination. In addition, analysis of eddy-potential-vorticity flux and eddy-enstrophy decay reveal when, where, and how the eddies tend to drive the mean flow. Rossby waves and westward-propagating eddies arriving from the east energize the SMC in June and accelerate the mean flow through an up-gradient eddy-potential-vorticity flux. At the same time, local winds also strengthen the flow, by increasing its mean near-surface kinetic energy and raising isopycnals, the latter building up available potential energy (APE). The baroclinic instability that takes place in late July and early August releases APE, thereby generating the SMC meanders.

Mechanisms of Eddy-Driven Variability of the Florida Current

AbstractIn this study, mechanisms causing year-to-year changes in the Florida Current seasonality are investigated using controlled realistic numerical experiments designed to isolate the western boundary responses to westward-propagating open ocean signals. The experiments reveal two distinct processes by which westward-propagating signals can modulate the phase of the Florida Current variability, which we refer to as the “direct” and “indirect” response mechanisms. The direct response mechanism involves a two-stage response to open ocean anticyclonic eddies characterized by the direct influence of Rossby wave barotropic anomalies and baroclinic wall jets that propagate through Northwest Providence Channel. In the indirect response mechanism, open ocean signals act as small perturbations to the stochastic Gulf Stream variability downstream, which are then transmitted upstream to the Florida Straits through baroclinic coastally trapped signals that can rapidly travel along the U.S. East Coast. Experiments indicate that westward-propagating eddies play a key role in modulating the phase of the Florida Current variability, but not the amplitude, which is determined by its intrinsic variability in our simulations. Results from this study further suggest that the Antilles Current may act as a semipermeable barrier to incoming signals, favoring the interaction through the indirect response mechanism. The mechanisms reported here can be potentially linked to year-to-year changes in the seasonality of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and may also be present in other western boundary current systems.

Investigation of the Intra-Annual Variability of the North Equatorial Countercurrent/North Brazil Current Eddies and of the Instability Waves of the North Tropical Atlantic Ocean Using Satellite Altimetry and Empirical Mode Decomposition

AbstractThe intra-annual variability of the tropical Atlantic Ocean north of the equator is investigated with satellite altimetry mean sea level anomaly data and with an algorithm based on empirical mode decomposition (EMD) methods. Two regions of high variability are identified. The first region, between 3° and 12°N, is characterized by the presence of westward-propagating eddies linked to the North Brazil Current (NBC) retroflection in the vicinity of the Brazilian coast. They show a strong annual cycle. In this paper the EMD algorithm points out that this signal is frequency modulated shifting from large length-scale structures in October to smaller ones in March. Consequently, the number of “eddies” per year can be aliased, according to the time and location of sampling, and can impact the percentage they explain of the interhemispheric exchange of mass and heat associated with the meridional overturning circulation’s upper limb. A scenario concerning this dynamics is proposed. The second region reveals the presence of westward-propagating instability waves centered north of the equator (3°–7°N) between 50° and 10°W. These instability waves are also frequency modulated and show a strong seasonal cycle with maximum amplitude around August.

Statistical features of eddies approaching the Kuroshio east of Taiwan Island and Luzon Island

This study examined the statistical features of eddies approaching the Kuroshio east of Taiwan Island and Luzon Island. In total, 315 eddies (138 anticyclonic and 177 cyclonic eddies) were detected from 19.5 years of satellite altimeter sea-level data, with more than 95% of these eddies being generated in the ocean west of the Mariana Islands. Eddy trajectory statistics indicated that eddies frequently intrude into the Kuroshio regime at two latitude bands, namely 18°N–19°N and 22°N–23°N, with periods of 146 ± 62 and 165 ± 46 days, respectively. The interaction time is longer within the two active bands (33 ± 10 days at 18°N–19°N and 45 ± 17 days at 22°N–23°N) than at other latitudes. These two eddy-intrusion bands are associated with the northern and southern Subtropical Countercurrents (STCCs). These STCCs have a vertically reversed sign of the meridional potential vorticity gradient, thus providing a key energy source for eddy generation. In addition, when westward-propagating eddies approach the Ryukyu Islands, the southwestward recirculation flow east of the island chain as well as topographic effects cause some eddies to head southwestward to the east of Taiwan and intrude into the Kuroshio at 22°N–23°N, rather than to dissipate directly. Therefore, we suggest that the STCCs play a key role in inducing the eddies to frequently intrude into the Kuroshio at 18°N–19°N and 22°N–23°N. In addition, the Ryukyu Islands are responsible for concentrating the eddies within 22°N–23°N.

Modelling the seasonal dynamics of the Peru-Chile Undercurrent off Central Chile (30–40°S)

The seasonal variability of the hydrology and the poleward subsurface Peru-Chile Undercurrent (PCUC) off the central Chilean coast (29–41°S) were examined using a high-resolution regional model. The model realistically reproduced observed sea level variability, such as intense anticyclonic eddies, the offshore intensification of the poleward flow and the reduced nearshore equatorward flow during autumn, as well as the equatorward intensification of nearshore meandering flow during spring. Values for geostrophic eddy kinetic energy were high along the coast between 30° and 37°S, and lower south of this area. The modelled poleward undercurrent showed latitudinal variability in velocity and transport. The maximum average transport reported was 0.8Sv near 30°S, consistent with previous modelling studies and estimations derived from in situ observations. The poleward reduction in undercurrent strength was shown to be partly generated by the poleward decrease in wind stress curl and by the formation of a westward jet near 35°S associated with westward-propagating eddies. A Lagrangian analysis of the modelled water parcels transported by the undercurrent shows that only 14–20% of the subsurface floats transported by the undercurrent upwelled into the surface layer within the subsequent six months after their release. The floats remaining within the subsurface layer were likely transported further south by the current, offshore by westward-propagating eddies or equatorward by the deeper part of the surface coastal current.

Generation of Internal Waves by Eddies Impinging on the Western Boundary of the North Atlantic

AbstractDespite the major role played by mesoscale eddies in redistributing the energy of the large-scale circulation, our understanding of their dissipation is still incomplete. This study investigates the generation of internal waves by decaying eddies in the North Atlantic western boundary. The eddy presence and decay are measured from the altimetric surface relative vorticity associated with an array of full-depth current meters extending ~100 km offshore at 26.5°N. In addition, internal waves are analyzed over a topographic rise from 2-yr high-frequency measurements of an acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP), which is located 13 km offshore in 600-m deep water. Despite an apparent polarity independence of the eddy decay observed from altimetric data, the flow in the deepest 100 m is enhanced for anticyclones (25.2 cm s−1) compared with cyclones (−4.7 cm s−1). Accordingly, the internal wave field is sensitive to this polarity-dependent deep velocity. This is apparent from the eddy-modulated enhanced dissipation rate, which is obtained from a finescale parameterization and exceeds 10−9 W kg−1 for near-bottom flows greater than 8 cm s−1. The present study underlines the importance of oceanic western boundaries for removing the energy of low-mode westward-propagating eddies to higher-mode internal waves.

Mesoscale eddies in the Gulf of Aden and their impact on the spreading of Red Sea Outflow Water

The Gulf of Aden (GOA) in the northwestern Indian Ocean is the receiving basin for Red Sea Outflow Water (RSOW), one of the World’s few high-salinity dense overflows, but relatively little is known about spreading pathways and transformation of RSOW through the gulf. Here we combine historical data, satellite altimetry, new synoptic hydrographic surveys and the first in situ direct observations of subsurface currents in the GOA to identify the most important processes in the spreading of RSOW. The new in situ data sets were collected in 2001–2003 as part of the Red Sea Outflow Experiment (REDSOX) and consist of two CTD/LADCP Surveys and 49 one-year trajectories from acoustically tracked floats released at the depth of RSOW.The results indicate that the prominent positive and negative sea level anomalies frequently observed in the GOA with satellite altimetry are associated with anticyclonic and cyclonic eddies that often reach to at least 1000m depth, i.e., through the depth range of equilibrated RSOW. The eddies dominate RSOW spreading pathways and help to rapidly mix the outflow water with the background. Eddies in the central and eastern gulf are basin-scale (∼250-km diameter) and have maximum azimuthal speeds of about 30cm/s at the RSOW level. In the western gulf, smaller eddies not detectable with satellite altimetry appear to form as the larger westward-propagating eddies impale themselves on the high ridges flanking the Tadjura Rift. Both the hydrographic and Lagrangian observations show that eddies originating outside the gulf often transport a core of much cooler, fresher water from the Arabian Sea all the way to the western end of the GOA, where the highest-salinity outflow water is found. This generates large vertical and horizontal gradients of temperature and salinity, setting up favorable conditions for salt fingering and diffusive convection. Both of these mixing processes were observed to be active in the gulf.Two new annually appearing anticyclonic eddies are added to the previously identified Gulf of Aden Eddy (GAE; Prasad and Ikeda, 2001) and Somali Current Ring (SCR; Fratantoni et al., 2006). These are the Summer Eddy (SE) and the Lee Eddy (LE), both of which form at the beginning of the summer monsoon when strong southwest winds blowing through Socotra Passage effectively split the GAE into two smaller eddies. The SE strengthens as it propagates westward deeper in the GOA, while the Lee Eddy remains stationary in the lee of Socotra Island. Both eddies are strengthened or sustained by Ekman convergence associated with negative wind stress curl patches caused by wind jets through or around high orography. The annual cycle in the appearance, propagation and demise of these new eddies and those described in earlier work is documented to provide a comprehensive view of the most energetic circulation features in the GOA.The observations contain little evidence of features that have been shown previously to be important in the spreading of Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW) in the North Atlantic, namely a wall-bounded subsurface jet (the Mediterranean Undercurrent) and submesoscale coherent lenses containing a core of MOW (‘meddies’). This is attributed to the fact that the RSOW enters the open ocean on a western boundary. High background eddy kinetic energy typical of western boundary regimes will tend to shear apart submesoscale eddies and boundary undercurrents. Even if a submesoscale lens of RSOW did form in the GOA, westward self-propagation would transport the eddy and its cargo of outflow water back toward, rather than away from, its source.

Fluctuations of the thermal fronts off northeastern Taiwan

[1] A high-resolution sea surface temperature (SST) data derived from several satellites is used to investigate the variability of the thermal front off northeastern Taiwan. Hidden by a dominant annual cycle, the SST data cannot reveal the thermal front fluctuation in the form of Hovmoller diagram. An innovative methodology has been applied to the SST satellite imagery to derive the SST Standardized Index (SSTSI), capable of revealing the frontal variability with multiple time scales. Principal component analysis shows that the SSTSI variation consists mainly of two modes. Mode 1 represents a strong annual cycle related to the seasonal reversal of the monsoonal winds. The temperature gradient is enhanced in winter and a cold dome is observed off northern Taiwan in summer. Mode 2 is highly correlated with the upstream Kuroshio variability. The shoreward (seaward) migration of the thermal front takes place when the Kuroshio transport weakens (strengthens). The results are consistent with transports estimated by tidal gauge measurements, satellite altimeter-based sea level anomaly, and surface flow patterns derived from high-frequency radars. Mode 2 is coherent with the Kuroshio transport through the East Taiwan Channel at periods of 120 and 45 d with a time lag of 40 and 11 d, respectively. This 120 d fluctuation is due to the interaction between westward-propagating eddies and the Kuroshio east of Taiwan, while the 45 d signal arises from the Kuroshio's self-instability. The interannual variations of the SST pattern in winter and summer are also discussed.

Significant sink of ocean-eddy energy near western boundaries

Ocean eddies generated through instability of the mean flow are a vital component of the energy budget of the global ocean. Modelling combined with satellite altimetry data suggests that the energy from westward-propagating eddies is scattered and eventually dispersed when they reach the western boundary of an ocean basin. Ocean eddies generated through instability of the mean flow are a vital component of the energy budget of the global ocean1,2,3. In equilibrium, the sources and sinks of eddy energy have to be balanced. However, where and how eddy energy is removed remains uncertain3,4. Ocean eddies are observed to propagate westwards at speeds similar to the phase speeds of classical Rossby waves5, but what happens to the eddies when they encounter the western boundary is unclear. Here we use a simple reduced-gravity model along with satellite altimetry data to show that the western boundary acts as a ‘graveyard’ for the westward-propagating ocean eddies. We estimate a convergence of eddy energy near the western boundary of approximately 0.1–0.3 TW, poleward of 10° in latitude. This energy is most probably scattered into high-wavenumber vertical modes, resulting in energy dissipation and diapycnal mixing6. If confirmed, this eddy-energy sink will have important implications for the ocean circulation.

Quasi-stationary striations in basin-scale oceanic circulation: vorticity balance from observations and eddy-resolving model

Recently, prominent jet-like features of the ocean circulation, called striations, with a meridional scale of O(300–500 ;km) and extending for thousands of kilometers in length, have been detected in satellite and in situ observations and in high-resolution numerical models. In this paper, we study quasi-stationary striations, which are best seen in the multi-year time-averaged velocity fields. Using 1993–2002 mean dynamic ocean topography, satellite altimeter observations, and output of the Ocean General Circulation Model for the Earth Simulator, the dynamics of the quasi-stationary striations in the eastern parts of the subtropical North and South Pacific are examined by assessing individual terms in the time-averaged equations of relative and potential vorticity. While non-linear effects are found to be essential in the dynamics of the striations, rejecting some linear hypotheses forwarded in the earlier studies, the relevance of the Rhines mechanism is not confirmed. Eddy flux does not act as a relative vorticity source for the striations. Using the potential vorticity (PV) diagnostics, we show that the time-mean PV is not conserved along the time-mean streamlines, and on the scale of the striations these changes in PV are largely induced by the eddy flux of layer thickness. The fact that eddy fluxes contribute to the striations’ time-mean PV budget suggests that the striations are not a kinematical artifact of time-averaging of westward-propagating eddies.

The Canary Eddy Corridor: A major pathway for long-lived eddies in the subtropical North Atlantic

We report, from remote sensing and in situ observations, a new type of permanent structure in the eastern subtropical Atlantic Ocean, that we call the “Canary Eddy Corridor”. The phenomenon, is a zonal long-lived (>3 months) mesoscale eddy corridor, whose source is the flow perturbation of the Canary Current and the Trade Winds at the Canary Islands. The latitudinal range of the corridor spans 22°N–29°N and extends from the Canaries to at least 32ºW, near the mid-Atlantic. This is the main region of long-lived westward-propagating eddies in the subtropical northeast Atlantic. From a age-distribution study we observe that at least 10% of mesoscale eddies in this region are long-lived, with a dominance of anticyclones over cyclones. Another four westward-propagating eddy corridors were also detected: two small corridors north and south of the Azores Front; a small zonal corridor located near 31ºN, south of the island of Madeira; and a small corridor located near the Cape Blanc giant filament. The existence of these corridors may change, at least for the northeastern subtropical Atlantic, the general idea that mesoscale eddies are disorganized, ubiquitous structures in the ocean. The Canary Eddy Corridor constitutes a direct zonal pathway that conveys water mass- and biogeochemical properties offshore from the Canary Island/Northwest Africa upwelling system, and may be seen as a recurrent offshore pump of organic matter and carbon to the oligotrophic ocean interior. Estimates of volume and mass transport indicate that Canary Eddy Corridor westward transport is more than one-fourth of the southward transport of the Canary Current. The westward transport of kinetic energy by the eddies of the Canary Corridor is as important as the southward transport by the Canary Current. The total primary production related to the Corridor may be as high as the total primary production of the northwest Africa upwelling system for the same latitude range.

Eddies around Madagascar — The retroflection re-considered

The Agulhas Current with its retroflection and attendant eddy-shedding is the cause of some of the greatest mesoscale variability in the ocean. This paper considers the area to the south and east of Madagascar, which provides some of the source waters of the Agulhas Current, and examines the propagating sea surface height signals in altimetry and output from a numerical model, OCCAM. Both show bands of variability along the axis of the East Madagascar Current (EMC) and along a zonal band near 25°S. Sequences of images plus associated temperature data suggest that a number of westward-propagating eddies are present in this zonal band. The paper then focuses on the region to the south of the island, where ocean colour and infra-red imagery are evocative of an East Madagascar Retroflection. The synthesis of data analysed in this paper, however, shows that remotely observed features in this area can be explained by anticyclonic eddies moving westward through the region, and this explanation is consistent with numerical model output and the trajectories of drifting buoys.