Western Music Research Articles

Rao Yuyan’s polyphonic works for piano in terms of performance

Statement of the problem. Rao Yuyan (1933–2010) is one of the most famous Chinese composers, who created many polyphonic works. His creative and research practices have profoundly influenced on the development of polyphony in China. Some aspects Rao Yuyan’s polyphonic thinking have been examined in the studies by Chen Yiwen (2015) and PanJia (2018). Innone of the researches the piano polyphonic works of the composer are studied from the standpoint of performance issues, definition of piano tasks in the process of their interpretation. In this study for the first time the piano polyphonic works of the composer are considered in the aspect of performance realization. The purpose of the study is to determine the most important performance principles and set of performance tasks in Rao Yuyan’s polyphonic works for piano. The article bases on Rao Yuyan’s piano works “Introduction and Fugue” (1956), the suite “Sketch of Life in Yan’an” (1963), “Prelude, Fugue and Chorale” (1964) and “Three Polyphonic Pieces on the Ancient Music of Chang An” (1992). The article uses historicaltypological, structural-functional, comparative, intonation and interpretative methods as necessary for performance analysis. The fundamental theoretical positions of Chinese polyphonic musicians (Su Xia, Ding Shande, Chen Mingzhi, Duan Pintai and others) uses, and Rao Yuyan’s theoretical works devoted to polyphony has particular importance. The issues of pianistic realization takes in account the polyphonic principles considered by Ying Jiang, Bai E. Results and conclusions of the research. RaoYuyan’s beautiful piano works have a great art value, they became a significant contribution to Chinese art of the 20 century. We can even define Rao Yuyan’s role as a creator of national polyphony who modernized the ancient national musical legacy. Rao Yuyan’s piano works discussed in this article use almost all known types of polyphonic techniques of Western music. The vividly example of it is the double fugue from the cycle “Prelude, Fugue and Chorale” or the last number “Weeping Willow” from the series “Three Polyphonic Pieces on the Themes of Chang An Ancient Music”, where the sort of “cantus firmus” technique – “basso ostinato” is used. In the piece “Sunrise” from the piano suite “Sketch of the Life of Yan’an” the polyphonic texture becomes almost like to consonant sonority. At the same time, the laconic themes used in the Suite call upon the thought that J. S. Bach was a spiritual teacher of the composer. However, the composer borrows his main ideas from the Chinese folk musical tradition. Rao Yuyan was well versed in traditional fugue techniques, however, in the cycles “Introduction and Fugue” and “Prelude, Fugue and Chorale” he included the local national musical elements to emphasize their cultural identity. Among the main pianistic tasks facing the performer of polyphonic works of Rao Yuyan – the development of clear auditory attention, the idea of the general form of the work. The auditory sense of the work controls the sound, covers both the whole and individual details of the polyphonic form. It not only controls the performance, but also takes an active part in the birth of the artistic way of playing polyphony. Breathing emphasizes the essence of polyphonic development, which consists in the continuity and fluidity of melodic lines through the relief introduction and plastic completion of individual polyphonic voices.

The Study of the Hybridity of Modern Chinese Popular Music through Shanghai Shidai Songs

After the First Opium War (1840∼1842), the concession of Shanghai (tentatively 31199; within the boundary) freely transplanted Western cultures such as Britain, the United States, France and Japan, and began to flow into multinational mixed cultures. Like this, Shanghai pop songs made in 1920∼1940s have also influenced the narrative and reproduction of Chinese pop music for nearly a century. In this paper, through the Shanghai old songs, which appeared mainly in Shanghai in the 1920s and 1940s and gained great popularity in the public, also named Shanghai period songs, primarily discussed the hybridity and characteristics of them. Next is the examination of the genre of Chinese new music and the mixed pattern of singing methods born in the process of introducing Western music. The nationwide success of academic musicians through Japan, the expansion of jazz music, and patriotic songs created by left-wing musicians of Academic group developed through mutual intersection and mix between musical elements. It is a huge and complex task to reveal the full picture of the mixing of modern Chinese pop music and Shanghai period songs. This paper throufg the understanding China s complex and multi-layered historical events, social phenomena, and musical hybridity, can be meaningful in providing an important clue for a full-fledged comparative study of modern pop music between Korea and China.

Inter-subject Correlation While Listening to Minimalist Music: A Study of Electrophysiological and Behavioral Responses to Steve Reich's Piano Phase.

Musical minimalism utilizes the temporal manipulation of restricted collections of rhythmic, melodic, and/or harmonic materials. One example, Steve Reich's Piano Phase, offers listeners readily audible formal structure with unpredictable events at the local level. For example, pattern recurrences may generate strong expectations which are violated by small temporal and pitch deviations. A hyper-detailed listening strategy prompted by these minute deviations stands in contrast to the type of listening engagement typically cultivated around functional tonal Western music. Recent research has suggested that the inter-subject correlation (ISC) of electroencephalographic (EEG) responses to natural audio-visual stimuli objectively indexes a state of “engagement,” demonstrating the potential of this approach for analyzing music listening. But can ISCs capture engagement with minimalist music, which features less obvious expectation formation and has historically received a wide range of reactions? To approach this question, we collected EEG and continuous behavioral (CB) data while 30 adults listened to an excerpt from Steve Reich's Piano Phase, as well as three controlled manipulations and a popular-music remix of the work. Our analyses reveal that EEG and CB ISC are highest for the remix stimulus and lowest for our most repetitive manipulation, no statistical differences in overall EEG ISC between our most musically meaningful manipulations and Reich's original piece, and evidence that compositional features drove engagement in time-resolved ISC analyses. We also found that aesthetic evaluations corresponded well with overall EEG ISC. Finally we highlight co-occurrences between stimulus events and time-resolved EEG and CB ISC. We offer the CB paradigm as a useful analysis measure and note the value of minimalist compositions as a limit case for the neuroscientific study of music listening. Overall, our participants' neural, continuous behavioral, and question responses showed strong similarities that may help refine our understanding of the type of engagement indexed by ISC for musical stimuli.

Extreme Exoticism: Japan in the American Musical Imagination, by W. Anthony Sheppard

<i>Extreme Exoticism: Japan in the American Musical Imagination</i>, by W. Anthony Sheppard

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Western Musicians’ Composing Music for Chinese Ancient Poetry

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Western Musicians’ Composing Music for Chinese Ancient Poetry

Musical instrument familiarity affects statistical learning of tone sequences

Most listeners have an implicit understanding of the rules that govern how music unfolds over time. This knowledge is acquired in part through statistical learning, a robust learning mechanism that allows individuals to extract regularities from the environment. However, it is presently unclear how this prior musical knowledge might facilitate or interfere with the learning of novel tone sequences that do not conform to familiar musical rules. In the present experiment, participants listened to novel, statistically structured tone sequences composed of pitch intervals not typically found in Western music. Between participants, the tone sequences either had the timbre of artificial, computerized instruments or familiar instruments (piano or violin). Knowledge of the statistical regularities was measured as by a two-alternative forced choice recognition task, requiring discrimination between novel sequences that followed versus violated the statistical structure, assessed at three time points (immediately post-training, as well as one day and one week post-training). Compared to artificial instruments, training on familiar instruments resulted in reduced accuracy. Moreover, sequences from familiar instruments – but not artificial instruments – were more likely to be judged as grammatical when they contained intervals that approximated those commonly used in Western music, even though this cue was non-informative. Overall, these results demonstrate that instrument familiarity can interfere with the learning of novel statistical regularities, presumably through biasing memory representations to be aligned with Western musical structures. These results demonstrate that real-world experience influences statistical learning in a non-linguistic domain, supporting the view that statistical learning involves the continuous updating of existing representations, rather than the establishment of entirely novel ones.

Combining Real-Time Extraction and Prediction of Musical Chord Progressions for Creative Applications

Recently, the field of musical co-creativity has gained some momentum. In this context, our goal is twofold: to develop an intelligent listening and predictive module of chord sequences, and to propose an adapted evaluation of the associated Music Information Retrieval (MIR) tasks that are the real-time extraction of musical chord labels from a live audio stream and the prediction of a possible continuation of the extracted symbolic sequence. Indeed, this application case invites us to raise questions about the evaluation processes and methodology that are currently applied to chord-based MIR models. In this paper, we focus on musical chords since these mid-level features are frequently used to describe harmonic progressions in Western music. In the case of chords, there exists some strong inherent hierarchical and functional relationships. However, most of the research in the field of MIR focuses mainly on the performance of chord-based statistical models, without considering music-based evaluation or learning. Indeed, usual evaluations are based on a binary qualification of the classification outputs (right chord predicted versus wrong chord predicted). Therefore, we present a specifically-tailored chord analyser to measure the performances of chord-based models in terms of functional qualification of the classification outputs (by taking into account the harmonic function of the chords). Then, in order to introduce musical knowledge into the learning process for the automatic chord extraction task, we propose a specific musical distance for comparing predicted and labeled chords. Finally, we conduct investigations into the impact of including high-level metadata in chord sequence prediction learning (such as information on key or downbeat position). We show that a model can obtain better performances in terms of accuracy or perplexity, but output biased results. At the same time, a model with a lower accuracy score can output errors with more musical meaning. Therefore, performing a goal-oriented evaluation allows a better understanding of the results and a more adapted design of MIR models.

Colonialism, Cosmopolitanism, and Nationalism: The Performativity of Western Music Endeavours in Interwar Shanghai

AbstractThis article examines the meaning of Western music performances in interwar Shanghai through the theoretical framework of performativity that originated in John Austin's speech act and Judith Butler's notion of identity as performed. The early concerts of the Shanghai Municipal Orchestra (SMO), I suggest, were an assertion of settler sovereignty in a treaty port such as Shanghai. Therefore, Chinese musicians performing Western music – propagated through the establishment of the National Conservatory of Music by Chinese elites in Shanghai's French Settlement in 1927 – was the embodiment of three contradictory ideals: colonialism, nationalism, and cosmopolitanism. Zooming in on four SMO concerts that featured Chinese musicians in 1929, I argue that they were sites of identity and power negotiation, the SMO and the Chinese musicians asserting quite distinct performative utterances. On the one hand, the performing Chinese body enacted the cosmopolitan outlook that the Municipal Council was eager to project, not only for the sake of ideology but also to increase SMO's concert revenue by appealing to the increasing number of Chinese concert attendees. On the other hand, it meant national glory to Chinese residents in Shanghai, marking Chinese musicians participating in a global musical network. Lastly, this study draws attention to the diverse geographies of Western music in the twentieth century and its coeval development beyond the West, testifying to the timely need for a global music history in which the musicking of Western music in so many Asian cities should be interwoven into its narrative.

A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Influence of Timbre on Affect Perception in Western Classical Music and Chinese Music Traditions.

Timbre is one of the psychophysical cues that has a great impact on affect perception, although, it has not been the subject of much cross-cultural research. Our aim is to investigate the influence of timbre on the perception of affect conveyed by Western and Chinese classical music using a cross-cultural approach. Four listener groups (Western musicians, Western nonmusicians, Chinese musicians, and Chinese nonmusicians; 40 per group) were presented with 48 musical excerpts, which included two musical excerpts (one piece of Chinese and one piece of Western classical music) per affect quadrant from the valence-arousal space, representing angry, happy, peaceful, and sad emotions and played with six different instruments (erhu, dizi, pipa, violin, flute, and guitar). Participants reported ratings of valence, tension arousal, energy arousal, preference, and familiarity on continuous scales ranging from 1 to 9. ANOVA reveals that participants’ cultural backgrounds have a greater impact on affect perception than their musical backgrounds, and musicians more clearly distinguish between a perceived measure (valence) and a felt measure (preference) than do nonmusicians. We applied linear partial least squares regression to explore the relation between affect perception and acoustic features. The results show that the important acoustic features for valence and energy arousal are similar, which are related mostly to spectral variation, the shape of the temporal envelope, and the dynamic range. The important acoustic features for tension arousal describe the shape of the spectral envelope, noisiness, and the shape of the temporal envelope. The explanation for the similarity of perceived affect ratings between instruments is the similar acoustic features that were caused by the physical characteristics of specific instruments and performing techniques.

A History of Emotion in Western Music: A Thousand Years from Chant to Pop, written by Spitzer, Michael Musical Emotions Explained: Unlocking the Secrets of Musical Affect, written by Juslin, Patrik N. The Routledge Companion to Music, Mind and Well-being, edited by Gouk, Penelope, James Kennaway, Jacomien Prins, and Wiebke Thormählen

"A History of Emotion in Western Music: A Thousand Years from Chant to Pop, written by Spitzer, MichaelMusical Emotions Explained: Unlocking the Secrets of Musical Affect, written by Juslin, Patrik N.The Routledge Companion to Music, Mind and Well-being, edited by Gouk, Penelope, James Kennaway, Jacomien Prins, and Wiebke Thormählen" published on 13 Jul 2021 by Brill.

Klasik Batı Müziği Bağlamında Müzikal Göstergebilimde Temel Birim Sorunsalı

Although the question of basic unit is a question of linguistics in principle, it has been a question of musical aesthetics and of musical semiotics in twentieth century likewise of many other disciplines. Developed under the pioneering roles of Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Peirce, semiotic studies have applied the language model to the disciplines of social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, philosophy, literary science, narratology, and artistic disciplines such as painting, cinema, theater and music. While it could be argued that the basic unit of a signifier is phoneme or of a sign is moneme, the question of basic unit is still an arguable question in musical semiotics, a relative new discipline. Pioneering studies in musical semiotics have dealt with this problematic in various aspects, but although the discussion has continued on the axis of Classical Western Music, a satisfactory consensus has not been achieved for the basic unit problematic. In this paper, the question of basic unit in musical semiotics will be examined in regard to the major semiotics theories and an inquiry on the existence of a possible basic unit in music will be performed. In this context, a brief summary of the semiotics theories of F. de Saussure, C. Peirce and Barthes; and the possible contribution of a possible application of these theories to the musical semiotics will be discussed by referring to J. Molino, M. Baroni, J.J. Nattiez and N. Ruwet. Following the discussion, an alternative phenomenological application to the question will be suggested by using the two ways as N. Ruwet names “from top to bottom” and “from bottom to top”. On the other hand, since the limited literature at hand has continued the discussion on the axis of Classical Western Music, the universal set of this study was intentionally limited to Classical Western Music.

Probe Tone Paradigm Reveals Less Differentiated Tonal Hierarchy in Rock Music

Krumhansl and Kessler’s (1982) pioneering experiments on tonal hierarchies in Western music have long been considered the gold standard for researchers interested in the mental representation of musical pitch structure. The current experiment used the probe tone technique to investigate the tonal hierarchy in classical and rock music. As predicted, the observed profiles for these two styles were structurally similar, reflecting a shared underlying Western tonal structure. Most interestingly, however, the rock profile was significantly less differentiated than the classical profile, reflecting theoretical work that describes pitch organization in rock music as more permissive and less hierarchical than in classical music. This line of research contradicts the idea that music from the common-practice era is representative of all Western musics, and challenges music cognition researchers to explore style-appropriate stimuli and models of pitch structure for their experiments.

Research on Chinese Modern Art Songs

Chinese modern art songs produced at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, is an important theme of the early development of Chinese modern new music, has an important position in the history of the development of Chinese modern music. At that time, some composers who studied music in foreign countries began to try to use the combination of excellent traditional Chinese poetry and the accompaniment of western Musical Instruments, the piano, to create art songs with a strong Chinese flavor, which gradually began to spread. In the 1930s and 1940s, more and more musicians devoted themselves to the field of artistic song creation, and they created a considerable number of excellent artistic songs with different themes and forms. The creation of Chinese art songs not only embodies the spirit of The Times, but also opens up a new way of creation.

Sustainability of Arts and Culture a Comparative Case Study of Cultural Village, Chiang Kham District, Phayao Province, Thailand and Luang Prabang, World Heritage City, Laos

Phayao University has operated the project, 1 faculty 1 model since fiscal year 2012 by assigning the Faculty of Architecture and Department of Science Responsible for Chiang Kham District, Phayao Province. Operating under 3 missions: Research, Academic service to society and the preservation of art and culture by shifting researchers to take responsibility for the project continuously for each fiscal year. Until now 2019, totaling 8 years, the first year that the faculty has adjusted the research model to integrate science. In which 5 disciplines are Architecture, Interior Design, Art and Design, Performing Arts, and Western Music to do a project together with an emphasis on working on the inheritance of Tai Lue wisdom and art and culture in conjunction with the project, together with the academic service project. To develop teachers' potential and arts and culture preservation projects in promoting student quality to drive the organization of the turbocharged, the operational area is Tai Lue Cultural Village, Yuan Subdistrict, Chiang Kham District, Phayao Province, Thailand. Comparing with Tai Lue cultural villages in a country that is culturally close to the culture is Tai Lue village, Na Yang Tai village, Nam Bak, Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR by studying the context of the change in arts and culture among the Tai Lue ethnic groups. To analyze for good development practice Integrated Science Research Project on the changing of the world and culture including the development of research administration and develop research groups within the faculties, and to achieve co-operation networks until leading to the exchange of knowledge between researchers and students at the international cooperation level for the purposes. They are (1) to study the relationship between Tai Lue culture in Phayao Province, and Tai Lue, Luang Prabang Province, Laos, in the arts and culture that will lead to the development of design and creation. (2) To manage research projects in the form of integration of science with all disciplines involved. It is expected that there will be a way to produce creative works, designs and/or academic articles from 5 disciplines and international activities.

Zhu Zaiyu’ s Twelve Mean Law and European Music Revolution -Take “Well Tempered Clavier” in Bach for example

Zhu Zaiyu is a famous Chinese musician in Ming Dynasty. His research results laid the theoretical foundation for the development of modern music.Joseph Needham called it ' the saint of Chinese Renaissance ', and equal temperament is the most important part of his music theory. Taking Bach ’ s “Well Tempered Clavier” as an example, this paper explores the theoretical significance of equal temperament through the causes and exploration process of the equal temperament, so as to study the influence of Zhu Zaiyu ’ s Equal Temperament theory on the European music revolution, and summarize the influence of this theory on the development of Chinese and Western music, so as to understand more comprehensively the important contribution of Equal Temperament to the development of Chinese and Western music.

Aesthetic Image of Yangqin within the Convergence between Chinese and Western Music

Aesthetic Image of Yangqin within the Convergence between Chinese and Western Music

Wendy Carlos: A Biography by Amanda Sewell

Reviewed by: Wendy Carlos: A Biography by Amanda Sewell Bradley M. Spiers (bio) Amanda Sewell. Wendy Carlos: A Biography (oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020). 263 pp. The composer and arranger Wendy Carlos (b. 1939) has long been overlooked by historians of Western art music. Best known for landmark albums like Switched-On Bach (1968) and film scores like A Clockwork Orange (dir. Stanley Kubrick, 1971) and Tron (dir. Steven Lisberger, 1982), Carlos fits uneasily into a history of Western music that has long privileged composers over arrangers, art music over popular music, and acoustic instruments over digital interfaces. When Carlos is discussed by music scholars, she is often overshadowed by her better-known male contemporaries like Milton Babbitt (with whom Carlos worked at Columbia's Computer Music Center) or reduced to a transgender stereotype.1 Amanda Sewell's 2020 biography on Carlos, Wendy Carlos: A Biography, offers a first step in complicating this history. Sewell, who works as the music director at Interlochen Public Radio, contextualizes the historical and technological details of Carlos's music with the accessible clarity of a gifted public musicologist and radio host. While not [End Page 226] without its flaws, Wendy Carlos: A Biography starts an important conversation about a composer who is often relegated to the peripheries of twentieth-century music. On the surface, Wendy Carlos is a relatively straightforward recounting of Carlos's life. Sewell speeds chronologically through the most important events of Carlos's biography: her early experiments with computer and musical technologies, her formal composition training at Brown and Columbia Universities, her collaboration with instrument designer Robert Moog, the challenging production and reception of Switched-On Bach, her withdrawal from public life and subsequent return in the eighties and nineties, and her recent work securing her legacy. Throughout these episodes, Sewell focuses on the messy contradictions of a composer struggling against the aesthetic and gendered biases that underlay Western music, music-making, and music makers in the late twentieth century. Sewell portrays Carlos as a figure yearning for digital simplicity amidst the chaos of an analog world, an impulse she articulates throughout the biography as Carlos's First Law: "For every parameter that you CAN control, you MUST control" (3, 24, 174). Sewell documents numerous musical and technological evolutions of this First Law through an array of electronic technologies—tape splicing, analog and digital synthesizers, MIDI controllers, computers, and audio formats like LP records, CDs, MP3s—each achieving greater control over an ever-expanding array of sonic parameters. For Carlos, electronic music-making freed composers and performers from the acoustical and cultural limitations of Western timbre and temperament. On tracks from her 1986 album Beauty in the Beast, for example, she used digital synthesis not only to recreate the five-note slendro and pelog tunings of Balinese gamelan, but also to produce original, microtonal tunings, including her alpha (with 15.3 notes per octave) and beta (with 63.8 notes per octave) scales. The result, explains Sewell, was an acoustical nuance impossible on most traditional instruments. Paradoxically, Carlos is best known for Switched-On Bach—an album that features electronic instruments simulating a traditional baroque orchestra. Nevertheless, Sewell hears continuities between Carlos's work on tuning and timbre and J. S. Bach's experimental sensibilities and emphasizes her professed kinship with the baroque master. Carlos explains that [End Page 227] if Bach were alive in the late twentieth century, he likely would have used a synthesizer "to overcome the 'limitations' of equal temperament."2 Sewell struggles, however, to present Carlos's compositions outside a Western art music context, often neglecting her outsized influence on popular music. Albums like Switched-On Bach and scores for films like A Clockwork Orange, The Shining (dir. Kubrick, 1980), and Tron are often presented uncritically as classical compositions written for classical or specialist audiences.3 Other scholars, such as Roshanak Kheshti in her recent 33 1/3 study on Switched-On Bach, have noted that the reality of Carlos's reception was not only more complicated but more interesting.4 Carlos's efforts on Switched-On Bach not only precipitated a flood of lesser imitators—The Moog Strikes Bach (1970), Switched-On Rock (1969), Music to...

Philosophy of Western Music: A Contemporary Introduction, by Anderw Kania

Philosophy of Western Music: A Contemporary Introduction, by Anderw Kania

Beauty in the Age of Empire: Japan, Egypt, and the Global History of Aesthetic Education by Raja Adal

Reviewed by: Beauty in the Age of Empire: Japan, Egypt, and the Global History of Aesthetic Education by Raja Adal Eriko Tomizawa-Kay (bio) Beauty in the Age of Empire: Japan, Egypt, and the Global History of Aesthetic Education. By Raja Adal. Columbia University Press, New York, 2019. xviii, 268 pages. $65.00, cloth; $64.99, E-book. Raja Adal's Beauty in the Age of Empire: Japan, Egypt, and the Global History of Aesthetic Education is a historically grounded critique of aesthetic education provided in Japanese and Egyptian primary schools from the early 1870s to the early 1940s. It is drawn from what the author terms the "global archive" of curricula, textbooks, and educational manuals. Using these resources, Adal has endeavored to put a global group of educators in dialogue with one another to examine the similarities in the priorities of educators worldwide at the end of the nineteenth century and then to consider the independent responses to art education by the societies on the receiving end of Western expansion. This book presents an important transnational approach and highlights indirect connections that can be identified between Japan and Egypt during the period of modernization. Adal's approach is refreshing because it avoids the usual trope of an uncritical West-to-East transfer of knowledge, when, in reality, it has always been more complicated than that. Comparing Egypt and Japan gives insights into this complexity. The importance of this book lies in Adal's commitment to write a global history that extends not from the West out toward its colonies but rather from the perspective of those nations seeking to define themselves in opposition to the West. To do this, he turns to aesthetic education, an often-neglected [End Page 232] aspect of nation building. "What happens," he asks, "if for a moment we allow wealth and military power to recede to a backdrop and bring aesthetics to the fore? In so doing, not only are we adopting a different perspective, but we are giving voice to a different set of historical actors" (pp. 15–16). This is the crux of Adal's study. By examining ways in which Japanese and Egyptian educational policymakers turned to music, writing, and drawing as tools for cultivating the sensibilities of the young and shaping their ideas of nationhood, he shows how countries threatened by the imperialist West turned to aesthetics as a form of resistance. The first half of the book examines the educational trajectories of the subjects of art education in question. After an introduction to the importation of primary curricula from Western nations at the turn of the twentieth century, chapter 2 focuses on music education. By the end of the nineteenth century, educators in both Japan and Egypt had largely abandoned indigenous musical traditions in favor of Western music. In terms of curriculum, Japan incorporated music education from 1886, while Egyptian schools would lag behind by more than four decades, possibly a consequence of the less pervasive state control of education. By the late 1920s to 1930s, however, the situation was being re-evaluated and both countries began to turn to their indigenous traditions. Adal nonetheless highlights differences between their respective conceptions of traditional music: Japan celebrated local musical forms such as the courtly gagaku, its continued existence distinguishing Japan from other East Asian nations that witnessed the erasure of their ancient indigenous music, whereas Egyptian educators embraced a wider Arabic canon of "Eastern beauty." Yet the embrace of nativist traditions was highly significant in both countries. Late nineteenth-century philosophies of music posited musical sensibility as the most primal sensory experience of the individual. If music had such privileged access to hearts and minds, it followed that traditional forms of music had the power to cultivate not just humanist sensibilities, but nationalist ones. The intervention of music in the aesthetic economy surrounding children was thus a crucial tool of nation building. As Adal explains in a later chapter (the second "Interlude"), this, in turn, encouraged the adoption of national anthems. While anthems were colonial imports, they used patriotic lyrics to appropriate the emotional impact of rousing melodies for a national cause. Chapter 3 explores the evolution of writing pedagogies...

Exploring Personal Deixis in Western Music: A Corpus-Based Study

Pragmatics informs us about the relationship between the use of language and its context. This relationship is identified through person deixis. This research interprets the reference meaning of personal deixis and looks at the most frequent personal deixis used in the lyrics of male and female English singers. This research uses a corpus method for the analysis. The data was collected from online sources to compile corpora of songs sung by male and female singers. The research has adopted both qualitative and quantitative approaches for the analysis of corpora. The corpus was tagged using parts-of-speech tagger (POS Tagger) and analyzed using AntConc software. The findings suggest that personal deixis are frequently used by both male and female singers.