Western Maryland Research Articles

Effectiveness of Emission Controls to Reduce the Atmospheric Concentrations of Mercury

Coal-fired power plants in the United States are required to reduce their emissions of mercury (Hg) into the atmosphere to lower the exposure of Hg to humans. The effectiveness of power-plant emission controls on the atmospheric concentrations of Hg in the United States is largely unknown because there are few long-term high-quality atmospheric Hg data sets. Here, we present the atmospheric concentrations of Hg and sulfur dioxide (SO2) measured from 2006 to 2015 at a relatively pristine location in western Maryland that is several (>50 km) kilometers downwind of power plants in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Annual average atmospheric concentrations of gaseous oxidized mercury (GOM), SO2, fine particulate mercury (PBM2.5), and gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) declined by 75%, 75%, 43%, and 13%, respectively, and were strongly correlated with power-plant Hg emissions from the upwind states. These results provide compelling evidence that reductions in Hg emissions from power plants in the United States had their intended impact to reduce regional Hg pollution.

“Storys, scalping and mohawking”

This work examines an often underappreciated factor in the defeat of General Edward Braddock’s infamous expedition against Fort Duquesne of 1755. This, of course, was the influence of the frontier tales, narratives and other stories (or the ‘rhetoric of fear’) fed to the regular British soldiery by their provincial allies—and indeed the colonial civilian population—as they marched across Western Maryland and Virginia on the long and arduous route to the Monongahela. These frequently exaggerated rumors and tales, evoking what many British colonists considered the almost mystical martial prowess (at least in North America’s backcountry) and merciless brutality of American Indian warriors, large numbers of whom were allied to the French, severely undermined morale among Old World soldiers advancing through what was a foreboding and unfamiliar country. This paper establishes that such literature and stories were factors of far greater significance than is recognized in traditional accounts of the Braddock defeat.

Cambarus (Jugicambarus) pauleyi, a new species of crayfish (Decapoda: Cambaridae) endemic to southcentral West Virginia, USA, with a re-description of Cambarus (J.) dubius.

Cambarus (Jugicambarus) dubius Faxon, 1884 is a polychromatic montane burrowing crayfish with a long, turbulent taxonomic history since its original description by Walter Faxon in 1884. Over the years, many distinct color phases have been identified, with the majority of these being confined to a specific geographic or physiographic region in the central and southern Appalachians. Previous investigations of this species (e.g., Dewees 1972) were unable to discover consistent morphological differences among the various groups, and thus were unable to clarify what has long been considered a species complex. Due to lingering taxonomic issues, we herein re-describe, delimit and restrict the concept of C. dubius. We also describe a new species, Cambarus (Jugicambarus) pauleyi, from the same complex, which can be identified through the use of geographic distribution, coloration, and distinct morphological characters. Cambarus dubius sensu stricto, as defined here, is restricted to the "typical form" which has an overall orang-ish color pattern on the dorsal and lateral sides, with cream ventrally. The distribution of C. dubius s.s. is limited to the central and northern portions of the Allegheny Mountains and high elevations of the Appalachian Plateau in central West Virginia, western Maryland, and southcentral Pennsylvania. In contrast, C. pauleyi is endemic to high elevation wetlands (>700 m) in the Meadow and Greenbrier River basins in Greenbrier and Monroe counties, West Virginia. Cambarus pauleyi can be differentiated from C. dubius s.s. by 1) its blue dorsal coloration compared to the orange coloration of C. dubius s.s., 2) its large (palm depth/(palm length) ratio, and 3) its smaller (rostral width)/(rostral length) ratio. Cambarus pauleyi can be separated from other peripatric populations of C. dubius sensu lato that occur in the Meadow and Greenbrier River drainage by its 1) blue coloration compared to the orange and black coloration of the latter, 2) the smaller (palm depth)/(palm length) ratio in C. pauleyi, and 3) the deeply excavated rostrum of C. dubius compared to the moderately excavated rostrum of C. pauleyi. Cambarus pauleyi can be easily differentiated from both taxa by the presence of two subpalmer tubercles. Both C. dubius s.s and peripatric C. dubius lack subpalmer tubercles. Cambarus pauleyi has an extremely narrow geographic distribution and has possibly experienced a significant range reduction due to the conversion of wetlands into pastures, and should be considered "Endangered" according to American Fisheries Society listing criteria (Taylor et al. 2007).

Is the globally rare frosted elfin butterfly (Lycaenidae) two genetically distinct host plant races in Maryland? DNA evidence from cast larval skins provides an answer

Frosted elfin butterfly caterpillars (Callophrys irus) eat either lupine (Lupinus perennis) or wild indigo (Baptisia tinctoria) legumes. Data from larval behavior, adult morphology, demographics, and phenology have led to the suggestion that lupine-feeding populations are genetically distinct from wild indigo-feeding populations. Frosted elfins are of conservation concern throughout their range in the eastern half of North America, and the possibility of host plant races—in which females pass genetically determined oviposition preferences to their daughters—complicates assessments of this vulnerable species. The maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA sequences makes CO1 an excellent gene to determine if genetically distinct host plant races have evolved in frosted elfins. In this paper, we extracted DNA using cast larval skins, a non-lethal, minimal-disturbance method appropriate for insects of conservation concern. Fifty eggs and caterpillars were taken from the field, reared in the lab until molting, and then returned to the plant on which they were found. Over 80 % of individuals had DNA successfully sequenced from their cast larval skins. The sequences allowed unequivocal identification. Neither the lupine-feeding nor wild indigo-feeding populations formed monophyletic clusters because many lupine-feeding and wild-indigo feeding individuals shared the same CO1 658 base pair sequence. An isolated population from the mountains of western Maryland was also not genetically distinct from a coastal population 345 km to the east. These results show the usefulness of using cast larval skins as a non-lethal source of DNA in listed species and suggest that frosted elfins are generalist feeders of lupine and wild indigo and are not comprised of two genetically distinct host plant races.

Ecological and Chemotypic Analysis for Improved Growth and Management of Naturally Occurring Black Cohosh (<i>Actaea racemosa</i> L.) Populations in Western Maryland

Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa L.) is a perennial herb native to deciduous woodlands in eastern North America with an extensive history of traditional use, most commonly for rheumatoid arthritis and female reproductive issues. Modern clinical research has maintained this herb’s relevance into the 21st century with a majority of authentic black cohosh raw material still harvested from naturally occurring populations in Appalachian woodlands for use in botanical supplements. Increased use and interest in black cohosh have led to increased wild harvesting, reports of adulteration, and stress on this important natural resource. In an effort to study this significant medicinal plant as part of an ecosystem, and to understand factors that would contribute to the more effective growth and maintenance of black cohosh, key chemical, physiological, and ecological aspects of two occurring populations in western Maryland were surveyed. Rhizomes were harvested from six populations of naturally occurring black cohosh in two state forests located in the Allegheny Plateau and Ridge and Valley physiogeographic provinces of Maryland. The concentrations of five medicinal compounds found in black cohosh extracts, actein, 23-epi-26-deoxyactein, cafeic acid, ferulicacid, and N-methylserotonin, were compared with plant reproductive status as well as accompanying overstory and under story species, soil moisture, and soil pH at each site. Compound levels showed a complex dependence on physiography but were independent of reproductive state. The findings provide clues to guide efforts at effective growth and management of wild populations of black cohosh and other threatened medicinal plants.

Assessment of region, farming system, irrigation source and sampling time as food safety risk factors for tomatoes

In the mid-Atlantic region of the United States, small- and medium-sized farmers use varied farm management methods and water sources to produce tomatoes. It is unclear whether these practices affect the food safety risk for tomatoes. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence, and assess risk factors for Salmonella enterica, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and bacterial indicators in pre-harvest tomatoes and their production areas. A total of 24 organic and conventional, small- to medium-sized farms were sampled for six weeks in Maryland (MD), Delaware (DE) and New Jersey (NJ) between July and September 2012, and analyzed for indicator bacteria, Salmonella and STEC. A total of 422 samples – tomato fruit, irrigation water, compost, field soil and pond sediment samples – were collected, 259 of which were tomato samples. A low level of Salmonella-specific invA and Shiga toxin genes (stx1 or stx2) were detected, but no Salmonella or STEC isolates were recovered. Of the 422 samples analyzed, 9.5% were positive for generic E. coli, found in 5.4% (n=259) of tomato fruits, 22.5% (n=102) of irrigation water, 8.9% (n=45) of soil, 3/9 of pond sediment and 0/7 of compost samples. For tomato fruit, farming system (organic versus conventional) was not a significant factor for levels of indicator bacteria. However, the total number of organic tomato samples positive for generic E. coli (1.6%; 2/129) was significantly lower than for conventional tomatoes (6.9% (9/130); (χ2 (1)=4.60, p=0.032)). Region was a significant factor for levels of Total Coliforms (TC) (p=0.046), although differences were marginal, with western MD having the highest TC counts (2.6logCFU/g) and NJ having the lowest (2.0logCFU/g). Tomatoes touching the ground or plastic mulch harbored significantly higher levels of TC compared to vine tomatoes, signaling a potential risk factor. Source of irrigation water was a significant factor for all indicator bacteria (p<0.0001), and groundwater had lower bacterial levels than surface water. End of line surface water samples were not significantly different from source water samples, but end of line groundwater samples had significantly higher bacterial counts than source (p<0.0001), suggesting that Good Agricultural Practices that focus on irrigation line maintenance might be beneficial. In general, local effects other than cropping practices, including topography, land use and adjacent industries, might be important factors contributing to microbiological inputs on small- and medium-sized farms in the mid-Atlantic region.

Mineral Leasing in Maryland

Just a few years ago, many western Maryland landowners saw an increase in oil and gas leasing as gas companies looked to further develop a vast natural gas field found in the Marcellus Shale. Looking at the issue of leasing minerals for oil and gas development, Maryland has limited court decisions involving the interpretation of leases. Maryland also has limited regulations in place for the oil and gas industry compared to neighboring states, such as Pennsylvania and West Virginia. This could change once the State finishes their review before allowing development of the state’s portion of the Marcellus Shale formation. As will be discussed later, the parties to an oil and gas lease may want to consider drafting the document to remove some uncertainties and not rely on a court eventually deciding in one party’s favor. This article will provide a review of Maryland's limited body of court decisions involving natural gas and oil leasing and how these issues are handled in state's with a more developed body of law.

Absence of organized lymphoid tissues in the intestine of the freshwater fish, C. commersonii (VET2P.1042)

Abstract Microscopic organized lymphoid tissues in the small intestine, such as cryptopatches (CP) and isolated lymphoid follicles (ILF), have been well characterized in the laboratory mouse. Descriptions of these structures have also been reported in rat and human, but the presence or absence of CP and ILF in other animals has not been explored. Given the evolutionary development of the adaptive immune system beginning in jawed fish, we hypothesized that CP and ILF would be present in the intestines of fish. We examined the intestines of 10 wild-caught Catostomus commersonii, a bottom-feeding freshwater fish found in local streams in Western Maryland and throughout the United States. The intestines of these fish were opened longitudinally and arranged in flattened layers for horizontal sectioning. Samples of mouse small intestine were prepared simultaneously as a positive control. After quick-freezing and sectioning, the tissue was stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Interestingly, a complete absence of organized lymphoid tissue was noted, suggesting that CP and ILF, in addition to the well-known Peyer’s patches, are limited to higher-order animals and potentially only mammals. Plans to study other fish species, especially carnivorous varieties (since the composition of the intestinal immune system can change in response to diet) are currently underway to further support this finding.

Out of Ireland

Martin carries a tin chest to the coast during the worst year of famine, alone. He must be the son the family can spare— the youngest, or the one whose crime or act of shame has put a premium on his fleeing. Perhaps he plans to earn passage for his parents when he arrives in the golden land, but he reappears married with a farm in western Maryland, four times a scribble on census forms— beyond that, illiterate and mute.

A new species of the subterranean amphipod genus Stygobromus(Amphipoda: Crangonyctidae) from two caves and a spring in western Maryland, USA with additional records of undescribed species from groundwater habitats in central Maryland.

A new species of the subterranean amphipod genus Stygobromus is described from two caves and a small spring on the Appalachian Plateau in Garrett County in western Maryland, USA. The description of this species brings to six the total number of species in the genus Stygobromus from the state of Maryland. The other five species are recorded from shallow groundwater habitats (e.g., seeps and springs) in the eastern and southeastern parts of the state. In addition, at least four new species of Stygobromus from central Maryland are recognized but remain undescribed to date.

The Myth and the Reality of the Evolving Patron

Mary P. Popp, 2012-2013 RUSA President, provided the leadership and inspiration for this annual program which drew a large audience that filled all the seats and spilled over onto the floor of the McCormick Place convention center room for five hundred in Chicago on June 29 at the ALA annual Conference. Lee Rainie, the Director of the Pew Research Center's Internet and American Life Project was the big draw, and he delivered. His dynamic and informative speech was laced with humor that was warmly received by the audience. Rainie was also generous with his time. He participated in a follow-up discussion forum on June 30 where he was joined in a panel discussion by Emily Ford, Urban and Public Affairs Librarian at Portland State University; Marie L. Radford, Chair, and Information Science Department, at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, and Joyce Valenza, teacher-librarian at Springfield Township High School, PA, and part-time professor. Joseph Thompson, Associate Director of the Western Maryland Regional and chair of the program committee, moderated the program and discussion forum. Other program committee members were Dianna McKellar, Emily Kornak, Sherri Michaels, Mary Mintz (cochair), Matthew Neer, and Mary Popp. A summary of Rainie's presentation follows along with reactions from Ford, Radford, and Valenza who not only participated in the discussion forum as panelists, but also generously agreed to describe their reactions to his presentation for this report.--Editor Lee Rainie, Director of the Pew Internet & American Life Project (www.pewInternet.org), spoke at the 2013 RUSA President's Program at the Annual Meeting of the American Association, Chicago. To experience the full impact of Rainie's presentation, readers may view the program recording (www.ala.org/rusa/rusa-presidents-program-video) and slides (www.slideshare.net/ PewInternet/2013-6-29-13-evolving-library-patron-rusa-atala-pdf). Additionally, one can read the Pew reports on libraries (www.pewInternet.org/Topics/Activities-and-Pursuits/ Libraries.aspx?typeFilter=5), including Library Services in the Digital Age (www.pewInternet.org/Topics/Activities-and-Pursuits/Libraries.aspx?typeFilter=5). This article highlights Rainie's key points from Pew survey data on America's library use. Following this summary, responses from leading library thinkers Emily Ford, Marie L. Radford, and Joyce Valenza, discuss their takeaways and thoughts from Rainie's presentation. SUMMARY OF LEE RAINIE'S PRESENTATION Rainie began by noting that the technology revolution has changed patron expectations of public libraries and experiences with libraries in five different ways. These expectations and experiences have undergone an evolution driven by patrons' (1) engagement or need, (2) life stage, (3) life stressors, (4) demographics, and by (5) library innovations. Librarians find it challenging to meet user expectations to both retain traditional services while embracing new service innovations, which can create a world full of pain, for librarians. Pew data found that 53 percent of Americans aged 16 or older visited a public library in the previous year. Women account for 59 percent of library users with parents of minors accounting for 63 percent of overall use. Somewhat surprisingly, among seniors 65 or older, only 40 percent reported visits. Sixty-three percent of library visitors have some college education. Based on the data, Rainie suggested that libraries may want to romance the moms among their potential users. What do library users do when they visit public libraries? The top three reported activities were borrowing books (73 percent), browsing books/media (73 percent), research (54 percent), and get help from a librarian (50 percent). Interesting demographic data characterized some of these activities. For instance, people under age 30 were more likely to do research. African Americans, especially seniors, were among those most likely to request assistance from librarians. …

McCay Vernon: a life worth celebrating.

McCay Vernon:A Life worth Celebrating Jean Andrews and Don Moores On August 29, 2013, Dr. McCay Vernon, a pioneer in the education of the deaf who had an incredible impact on the field, passed away at age 84. A psychologist, Mac was indeed “present at the creation.” He began his career at a time when little was known about the various etiologies of deafness, when it was assumed that deaf individuals were less intelligent than hearing individuals and that the use of any kind of sign language was detrimental to the development of speech, English, and academic achievement. He changed the thinking behind these assumptions, and many more. His seminal research on the variable impact of different causes of deafness on growth and functioning provided new insights. His work on cognition and deafness established that the cognitive abilities of deaf and hearing persons were equivalent, and his findings on the positive impact of manual communication, educational achievement, linguistic competence, oral skills, and psychological development helped advance the acceptance of manual communication in the classroom. His books They Grow in Silence, with Gene Mindel, and Psychology of Deafness, with Jean Andrews, remain landmark works. Click for larger view View full resolution Mac was a psychology professor at Western Maryland College (now McDaniel College), Westminster, from 1969 to 1991. There, he attracted and mentored leaders in education, psychology, and genetics and deafness. He became editor of the American Annals of the Deaf in 1969 and led the journal to international prominence. He retired as editor of the Annals in 1989, but remained as a reviewer and member of the Editorial Board for the rest of his life. Upon his retirement, he moved to Saint Augustine, in the state where he had grown up, Florida, and remained active in the fields of psychology, mental health, education, medicine, and the law as they related to deafness. Jean first met Mac 40 years ago when she was a first-year master’s degree student and Mac was teaching the Psychology of Deafness class at Western Maryland. This began a long friendship and years of productive collaboration. In his class, Mac would have graduate students who were deaf tell their painful and lonely stories about growing up without sign language. While at Western Maryland, Mac published a second edition of his book, They Grow in Silence, as well as research on preschool education, the role of deaf teachers, deaf-blindness, and the effects of various etiologies on deafness; he was also making documentary films about deafness and serving as editor of the Annals. Mac’s research on preparing and hiring deaf teachers is a model my colleagues and I have tried to replicate at other universities. As a young teacher of reading at the Maryland School for the Deaf, in Frederick, I would often stop by Mac’s office in nearby Westminster to discuss what I was learning, and Mac suggested that I go to the University of Illinois to study linguistics and reading. After graduating from the University of Illinois, I joined the faculty at Eastern Kentucky University in teacher training. Mac invited me to coauthor the Psychology of Deafness textbook. Six years later, when I moved to Texas to teach at Lamar University, Mac served on doctoral committees for our students, providing many ideas for research as well as mentorship. Around 2000, Mac was instrumental in helping to set up the National Deaf Academy (NDA), in Mount Dora, FL, a [End Page 397] facility for the treatment of deaf children and adults with mental health issues. In his earlier research on etiologies, Mac had found that biology (etiologies), home environment (lack of communication), and poor instructional methods can lead to later mental health problems in deaf individuals. One day, I met Mac for lunch near NDA when I was on campus observing student teachers in NDA’s charter school. Mac said, “I never thought that I would see, in my lifetime, a facility that provided accessible mental health services like NDA provided.” Mac’s mind and heart were in improving mental health services for deaf persons, and the establishment of NDA was a significant accomplishment. Mac was also a creative writer of nonfiction...

Trends in emissions and concentrations of air pollutants in the lower troposphere in the Baltimore/Washington airshed from 1997 to 2011

Abstract. Trends in the composition of the lower atmosphere (0–1500 m altitude) and surface air quality over the Baltimore/Washington area and surrounding states were investigated for the period from 1997 to 2011. We examined emissions of ozone precursors from monitors and inventories as well as ambient ground-level and aircraft measurements to characterize trends in air pollution. The US EPA Continuous Emissions Monitoring System (CEMS) program reported substantial decreases in emission of summertime nitrogen oxides (NOx) from power plants, up to ∼80% in the mid-Atlantic States. These large reductions in emission of NOx are reflected in a sharp decrease of ground-level concentrations of NOx starting around 2003. The decreasing trend of tropospheric column CO observed by aircraft is ∼0.8 Dobson unit (DU) per year, corresponding to ∼35 ppbv yr−1 in the lower troposphere (the surface to 1500 m above ground level). Satellite observations of long-term, near-surface CO show a ∼40% decrease over western Maryland between 2000 and 2011; the same magnitude is indicated by aircraft measurements above these regions upwind of the Baltimore/Washington airshed. With decreasing emissions of ozone precursors, the ground-level ozone in the Baltimore/Washington area shows a 0.6 ppbv yr−1 decrease in the past 15 yr. Since photochemical production of ozone is substantially influenced by ambient temperature, we introduce the climate penalty factor (CPF) into the trend analysis of long-term aircraft measurements. After compensating for inter-annual variations in temperature, historical aircraft measurements indicate that the daily net production of tropospheric ozone over the Baltimore/Washington area decreased from ∼20 ppbv day−1 in the late 1990s to ∼7 ppbv day−1 in the early 2010s during ozone season. A decrease in the long-term column ozone is observed as ∼0.2 DU yr−1 in the lowest 1500 m, corresponding to an improvement of ∼1.3 ppbv yr−1. Our aircraft measurements were conducted on days when severe ozone pollution was forecasted, and these results represent the decreasing trend in high ozone events over the past 15 yr. Back trajectory cluster analysis demonstrates that emissions of air pollutants from Ohio and Pennsylvania through Maryland influence the column abundances of downwind ozone in the lower atmosphere. The trends in air pollutants reveal the success of regulations implemented over the past decades and the importance of region-wide emission controls in the eastern United States.

Does the spatial arrangement of disturbance within forested watersheds affect loadings of nitrogen to stream waters? A test using Landsat and synoptic stream water data

Remotely sensed maps of forest disturbance provide a powerful tool for predicting spatial and temporal variability in the loading of nitrogen to receiving waters, key data needed for effective watershed management of nutrient pollution. We hypothesize that the spatial arrangement of disturbances within small-forested watersheds can affect N loadings. To test this, we developed schemes for spatially weighting maps of yearly disturbance produced through change analysis of the Landsat Tasseled Cap Disturbance Index (DI), and evaluated the ability of each scheme to predict N concentrations, and subsequently estimated N loads, from forty low-order streams within the Savage River drainage of western Maryland, USA during the 2006–2010 water years, a period encompassing extensive defoliations by gypsy moths (Lymantria dispar). We generated a base scheme of unweighted, watershed averaged change in DI (ΔDI), and five other schemes that weighted ΔDI by either a pixel's flow accumulation value, the distance to the watershed outlet, or proximity to the stream. Over the five years, the flow accumulation scheme tended to perform better than other weighting schemes, and even explained slightly more variability than the base scheme during years of moderate N loads (R2=0.15 vs. 0.03 in 2007 and R2=0.30 vs. 0.18 in 2010). However, this best spatial weighting scheme explained comparable or less variability during the two post-defoliation years with larger N loads (R2=0.43 vs. 0.44 in 2008 and R2=0.31 vs. 0.48 in 2009). Thus, for the purposes of utilizing remote sensing information within watershed management of nutrient pollution, these results suggest that coarse-scale, high temporal frequency data such as MODIS could be well suited for characterizing forest disturbance and predicting the resultant episodic N loads.

Hirelings: African American Workers and Free Labor in Early Maryland

Hirelings: African American Workers and Free Labor in Early Maryland

Spatial dynamics of a gypsy moth defoliation outbreak and dependence on habitat characteristics

Forest insects cause defoliation disturbances with complex spatial dynamics. These are difficult to measure but critical for models of disturbance risk that inform forest management. Understanding of spatial dynamics has lagged behind other disturbance processes because traditional defoliation sketch map data often suffered from inadequate precision or spatial resolution. We sought to clarify the influence of underlying habitat characteristics on outbreak patterns by combining forest plots, GIS data and defoliation intensity maps modeled from Landsat imagery. We quantified dependence of defoliation on spatial patterns of host abundance, phenology, topography, and pesticide spray for a recent gypsy moth outbreak (2000–2001), in a mixed deciduous forest in western Maryland, USA. We used semivariograms and hierarchical partitioning to quantify spatial patterns and variable importance. Habitat characteristics from plot data explained 21 % of defoliation variance in 2000 from tree density, phenological asynchrony, pesticide spray status, and landform index and 34 % of the variance in 2001 from previous-year defoliation, relative abundance of non-host species, phenological asynchrony, pesticide spray status, and relative slope position. Spatial autocorrelation in residual defoliation ranged over distances of 788 m in 2000 and 461 m in 2001, corresponding well with gypsy moth larval dispersal distances (100 m to 1 km). Un-measured processes such as predation, virus and pathogen occurrence likely contribute to unexplained variance. Because the spatial dynamics of these factors are largely unknown, our results support modeling gypsy moth defoliation as a function of dependence on significant exogenous characteristics and residual spatial pattern matching.

Cavalry Escape from Harpers Ferry

Some historians say it was one of the great cavalry operations of the Civil War. No one was killed or wounded. Over twelve-hundred Union cavalrymen escaped death or dismemberment from exploding artillery shells or certain incarceration in any number of Confederate prisons. Only a few surrendered with an overwhelmed Union garrison. Less than twenty were unable to survive the terrifying ride to safety. Yet this is an operation that is little known to most who study American History. It is known as the Cavalry Escape from Ferry. It occurred on September 14 and 15 of 1862 in what are now West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania during the Antietam Campaign. This article will explore the sequence of events, the personnel involved, and the reasons behind its successful completion. Four Union cavalry regiments became the stars of this drama. These men were not regulars, that is, those who had spent significant time in the regular United States Army before the Civil War. Rather these men were all volunteers and the forerunners of today's National Guard Citizen Soldiers who were called to active service by President Abraham Lincoln in 1861. They would become some of the best horse soldiers of the states of Illinois, New York, Maryland, and Rhode Island. Yet in September of 1862 they were primarily boys who volunteered to fight for the Union. They had been ordered to Ferry where they found themselves surrounded by some of the best troops that the Confederacy could throw against them. (Figure 1) It is instructive at this point to examine the reason that the over twelvehundred mounted soldiers who were in the federal garrison at Ferry, Virginia, came to be there in the first place. Throughout the summer of 1862, most of the command had been part of what the Army of the Potomac called the railroad brigade. Their purpose had been to secure the rail line from Baltimore through western Maryland and on into what were the western counties of Virginia. They were to protect that rail line from possible cavalry raids from the Confederate commands of Brigadier General Turner Ashby and Major General J.E.B. Stuart. They had succeeded well enough throughout the spring and summer of 1862 as that railroad remained open to supply Union troops all over Maryland and northern Virginia. With Lee's Army of Northern Virginia now on the move in September of 1862 toward the Shenandoah Valley after their victory at the Second Bull Run, that cavalry railroad brigade along with some additional mounted troops (with their horses, tack, and all equipment, including the regimental band of the 12th Illinois Cavalry) were moved to Ferry. From available information their mission was to await orders from Washington to move against Lee's supply lines should that Confederate general turn his troops northward toward the Pennsylvania border. When the federal cavalry arrived in Ferry and crossed the Potomac River they were able to view the remains of the U.S. Army arsenal which had been dismantled by the Confederates in late 1861. They could not have helped but notice that although some of the civilian population remained, most had fled that community during the early days of the war.1 The cavalry troopers were assigned the area of Ferry known as Virginius Island to garrison the troops. It was formerly the location of several factories which had made Ferry a fairly prosperous community prior to the war. By September of 1862 most of the area, like the U.S. arsenal, had seen the results of the war. It still had a number of structures that could shelter officers and men against the elements. Even the gutted buildings could, in and emergency, act as stables for the over twelve-hundred horses that had come with the troopers. The town of Ferry in September of 1862 was not only a nearly destroyed community, it was a military nightmare soon to be experienced. Harpers Ferry lay in the bottom of a natural bowl and (was) rimmed by three heights. …

Gastrointestinal Parasites in Road-Killed Raccoons and Opossums in Western Maryland

Opossums (Didelphis virginiana) and raccoons (Procyon lotor) harbor several types of endoparasites, including various nematode and cestode species. The purpose of this study was to identify endoparasites from the gastrointestinal tract of road-killed opossums and raccoons collected in Fall 2011 in Allegany and Garrett counties in Maryland. A total of 2 opossums and 3 raccoons were collected and dissected and several endoparasitic worms were removed. Sex of each worm was determined and eggs were removed from selected females for examination. Two nematode species were identified in the opossum: Physaloptera turgida was found in the stomach; and Cruzia americana was found in the intestine. One nematode species was identified in the raccoon: Baylisascaris procyonis was found in the intestine. Also, approximately 12 damaged proglottids from a tapeworm were found in the intestine of 1 raccoon, but definitive identification of the species was not possible. Our results are similar to previous studies which have found these same nematodes in opossums and raccoons, although recent reports of these species in Western Maryland have not been reported. Endoparasite species are usually specific to their definitive host; however, B. procyonis is considered a zoonotic agent because accidental ingestion of eggs can cause visceral larval migrans in humans. Even though our sample size was too small to assign any statistical significance to our data, the fact remains that B. procyonis poses a serious risk to human health and further studies to determine the number of raccoons and other animals infected in Western Maryland may be warranted.

Detecting river otter Lontra canadensis latrines near bridges: does habitat and season influence survey success?

During 2006, we conducted riparian surveys to detect river otter Lontra canadensis latrines at 15 bridge‐suites along riverine habitats in southwestern Pennsylvania and western Maryland, USA. We defined a bridge‐suite as consisting of survey locations at the bridge, a random site and a site chosen by application of a Pattern Recognition Model developed for predicting the location of latrines, with each survey location consisting of both shorelines along a 200‐m section of the river. We used occupancy modeling to assess the influence of the continuous covariate SiteScore (a probability derived from Pattern Recognition modeling, with higher scores predicting habitat conditions where river otters are most likely to establish latrines). We also included two categorical covariates with the modeling, each with three factor levels: SiteType (consisting of the three survey locations within a bridge‐suite: Bridge, Random and Select, chosen based on having the highest SiteScore among non‐Bridge sites within a bridge‐suite) and Season (spring, summer and fall) on the probability of detecting a positive site (i.e. a site with ≥ 1 latrine). The selected model suggested that probabilities of detection were positively related to SiteScore (i.e. habitat quality), higher in spring and fall than in summer, and higher at Selected and Random sites than at Bridge sites. In our study areas, efficacy of surveys to detect river otter signs (i.e. scats at latrines) would be considerably enhanced by considering habitat quality when selecting survey locations and by conducting surveys during spring or fall.

Modeling exurban development near Washington, DC, USA: comparison of a pattern-based model and a spatially-explicit econometric model

The development of private rural lands can significantly fragment landscapes, with potentially negative consequences on ecosystem services. Models of land-use trends beyond the urban fringe are therefore useful for developing policy to manage these environmental effects. However, land-use change models have been primarily applied in urban environments, and it is unclear whether they can adequately predict exurban growth. This study compared the ability of two urban growth models to project exurban development in north-central Virginia and western Maryland over a 24-year period. Pattern-based urban growth models (such as SLEUTH) are widely used, but largely mimic patterns that emerge from historic conditions rather than allowing landowner decision-making to project change. In contrast, spatially-explicit econometric models (such as the complementary log–log hazard assessed in this study) model landowner choices as profit-maximizing behavior subject to market and regulatory constraints. We evaluated the two raster-based models by comparing model predictions to observed exurban conversion at pixel and county scales. The SLEUTH model was more successful at matching the total amount of new growth at the county scale than it was at the pixel scale, suggesting its most appropriate use in exurban areas is as a blunt instrument to forewarn potential coarse-scale losses of natural resources. The econometric model performed significantly better than SLEUTH at both scales, although it was not completely successful in fulfilling its promise of projecting changes that were sensitive to policy. The lack of significance of some policy variables may have resulted from insufficient variation in drivers over our study area or time period, but also suggests that drivers of land use change in exurban environments may differ from those identified for urban areas.