Western Han Dynasty Research Articles

Archaeometric study of the iron objects from the Xuechi sacrificial site and its implication for bloomery iron smelting during early Western Han period in China

AbstractMetallographic examination and compositional study of slag inclusions on iron objects unearthed from Xuechi in Shaanxi, China, have revealed the smelting and manufacturing techniques employed at this Western Han dynasty sacrificial site. The results suggest two production systems among the samples: all knives, nails, and farming implements were made from cast iron that had been decarburised/malleablised through annealing or fining process. It is proposed that these samples were produced in designated state‐owned workshop. Two horse‐bit sets, on the other hand, were forged into shape using both bloomery iron and fined iron from various sources, with possible repairing and recycling involved in the manufacturing process. It is therefore argued that the horse bits found in the site came with the horse and had been produced separately from the other iron objects. Furthermore, this paper argues that although cast iron‐based production was the main method for large‐scale iron production, small‐scale bloomery iron smelting may have been practiced during the Western Han dynasty in certain regions as an alternate but economically viable method.

On the Supremacy of Confucianism and the Periodization of Confucian Classics Learning in the Han Dynasty

Wang Baoxuan’s 王葆玹 argument that Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty respected the Five Confucian Classics and tolerated non-Confucian schools because the “supremacy of Confucianism” (獨尊儒術) was not implemented until the reign of Emperor Cheng can be disputed. Additionally, Wang’s premise that masters learning (子學) in the Warring States period was the source of classics learning (經學) in the Western Han dynasty, and the extinction of masters learning during the supremacy of Confucianism led to the decline of classics learning, can also be debated. This paper proposes that with regard to the supremacy of Confucianism, the focus was on the second founding of the Han dynasty, not on the relationship between classics learning and masters learning. Both the Qin dynasty and the Western Han dynasty had masters learning as their guiding ideology, but Emperor Wu found that solely relying on masters learning, which was a collection of ideas by important thinkers, was not sustainable. Instead, the Han dynasty needed to be based on classics learning, which represented the traditional Chinese civilization that was inherited from the three ancient and sacred Chinese dynasties of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou. The supremacy of Confucianism was thus a means of ensuring the continuity and stability of the Han dynasty that was applied by Dong Zhongshu and Emperor Wu.

Re-study on the Restoration of Lacquered Wooden Screens in the tomb of the NanYue King of Western Han Dynasty, Guangzhou

Lacquered wooden screen copper components unearthed from the tomb of the King of the NanYue in Xianggang Mountain, Guangzhou City, is an archaeological discovery of a practical screen relics of the Western Han Dynasty. Lacquered wooden screen copper components unearthed from the tomb of the King of the NanYue in Xianggang Mountain, Guangzhou City, is an archaeological discovery of a practical screen relics of the Western Han Dynasty. After excavation and organisation, its restored parts have become one After excavation and organisation, its restored parts have become one of the important exhibits in the NanYue King Museum in Guangzhou. In this paper, according to the archaeological excavation report of the tomb of the King of NanYue of the Western Han Dynasty and related information, combined with the copper components of the screen in kind, using the Western Han Dynasty After the study, it is found that the materials used in its construction conform to a materials used in its construction conform to a certain scale modulus law, according to which the restoration results obtained from the research law are more reasonable and credible, and at the same time, it reveals the scientific nature of the research technology of small woodwork in Lingnan during the Western Han Dynasty. Western Han Dynasty.

The Filial Piety Thought and Elderly Care Practice in the Western Han Dynasty as Seen in “Discourses on Salt and Iron”

The Filial Piety Thought and Elderly Care Practice in the Western Han Dynasty as Seen in “Discourses on Salt and Iron”

The Western Han Dynasty Pyramids and their Orientation in TessaDEM Elevation Maps

The Western Han Dynasty Pyramids and their Orientation in TessaDEM Elevation Maps

How the metal supply for mintage shifts in the transforming monetary system of the Han Empire: Archaeometallurgical study of the Wuzhu coins from the Guanghuacun cemetery, Chengdu, Southwest China

The monetary system and the metal supply for mintage are both important for state governance. The relationship between these two issues in the Han Empire, China, still need to be verified. In this paper, 23 Wuzhu五铢 coins of the three Shanglin offices (上林三官, SLSG) of the Western Han dynasty (202BCE-8CE, WHD) and the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE, EHD), excavated from Guanghuacun cemetery, Chengdu city, were studied by SEM-EDS, ICP-AES and MC-ICP-MS, etc. The results show Cu-Sn-Pb, Cu-Sn, and Cu-Sb-Sn-Pb alloys, and identify one of the coins with the highest content of tin in ancient China. The lead isotopes and trace elements reflect the changes in the provenances of metal materials for mintage from concentrated to scattered between the SLSG and EHD periods. The lead isotopes infer that the lead of SLSG coins was mainly derived from the Xiaoqinling小秦岭 region, and the sources of lead for EHD coins should include the Xiaoqinling, the Sichuan-Yunnan-Guizhou Rhombic Block川滇黔菱形地块, the Qinling秦岭, and the lower Yangtze regions. These findings on the shift in metal supply for mintage in the transforming monetary system provide a new insight into the issues of political and economic policy of the Han Empire.

Horse Policy and Ruling Thought in the Early Western Han: Examining the Ordinances on Fords and Passes

The central government's regulations on the sale and purchase of horses in the Land within the Passes (Guanzhong ) and their entry and exit from the Pass in the Ordinances on Fords and Passes (Jinguan ling ) are important sources for understanding the horse policy of the early Western Han Dynasty and recognizing the relationship between the dynasty and the counties and vassal states outside the Pass. By examining the ordinances on the purchase and sale of horses, it is clear that the Han state strictly controlled horses, restricted private ownership of horses, and prohibited horses from exiting the Pass. However, some "privileged classes" still had the right to purchase horses from the Han government and take them out of the Pass after following some legal procedures, but this privilege was entirely dependent on the imperial power. Behind these regulations, it reflects the legislative thought of the supremacy of imperial power, "power over law"(), and the fundamental purpose of consolidating centralized power, weakening the strength of vassal states, and "strengthening the central forces while weakening the local ones" ().

Research on Ancient Education and Culture along the Taizhou Yunyan River

The ancient Yunyan river that spans Taizhou is “mother river” and has nurtured a charming regional culture. From Dong Zhongshu establishing the Confucian virtue of “Zheng Yi Ming Dao(Act with justice and moral),” to Hu Yuans educational philosophy of “Ming Ti Da Yong(Making practical use of truth), ” to Wang Gen, the founder of the Taizhou School, promoting the “People Daily That Ontology”, it has estabilished a thousand years of cultural and educational system along the ancient salt canal. The Yunyan river of Taizhou City began as a tributary of Hangou dug by Emperor Liu Bi of Wu State in the early Western Han Dynasty in China. This river has a history of more than two thousand years. This river starts from Zhuyu Bay (in today’s Wantou Town) in the west of Yangzhou, passes through Hailingcang (now named Taizhou City), and ends at the east of Rugao Panxi River. The length of this river is 159 kilometers. The river gradually extends to Nantong Jiuxu Port, with a total length of 191 kilometers. In Taizhou City, the river for transporting salt is 64.5 kilometers long. This salt river can be said to be the "mother river" of Taizhou City. This river has cultivated a charming regional culture and shaped a unique cultural space. The development and prosperity of culture and education along the riverside of Yunyan river is inseparable from the three Confucian masters, Dong Zhongshu, Hu Yuan and Wang Gen..

Advances in Phytochemistry and Modern Pharmacology of Saposhnikovia Divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk.

Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk (S. divaricata, Fangfeng) is a herb in the Apiaceae family, and its root has been used since the Western Han Dynasty (202 B.C.). Chromones and coumarins are the pharmacologically active substances in S. divaricata. Modern phytochemical and pharmacological studies have demonstrated their antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-tumor, and anticoagulant activities. Technological and analytical strategy theory advancements have yielded novel results; however, most investigations have been limited to the main active substances-chromones and coumarins. Hence, we reviewed studies related to the chemical composition and pharmacological activity of S. divaricata, analyzed the developing trends and challenges, and proposed that research should focus on components' synergistic effects. We also suggested that, the structure-effect relationship should be prioritized in advanced research.

Analyzing the Digital Inheritance of Nanyang Branding Painting from the Perspective of Cultural Anthropology

Nanyang branding painting has a development history of more than 2,000 years since it was introduced at the end of the Western Han Dynasty, during which many legends about branding painting have been passed down. The characteristics of branding painting are the use of plant carbonation mechanism, the use of temperature-controlled techniques, hot branding as the main, set of colours as a supplement, not using other colours of the art expression methods. By sketching and baking on bamboo, wood, rice paper, silk and other materials, branding painting aptly combines the various expression techniques of traditional painting art and modern branding techniques, resulting in a unique artistic style. In the modern living environment, Nanyang branding painting can play the function of enriching the life of beauty painting, spreading Chinese culture and cultivating aesthetic sentiment, therefore, this paper will analyse the dissemination and development of Nanyang branding painting art on the digital platform from the perspective of cultural anthropology.

Journey to the Next World by Wang Fengshi(王奉世), a Man from Guangling Shili(廣陵石里), during the Reign of Emperor Xuan(宣帝) of the Western Han Dynasty

Journey to the Next World by Wang Fengshi(王奉世), a Man from Guangling Shili(廣陵石里), during the Reign of Emperor Xuan(宣帝) of the Western Han Dynasty

“三礼”中的“具身德育”探微

The “Three Rites” from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period to the early Western Han Dynasty contain Confucian ethics and social and political thoughts, which can provide nourishment for the study of “embodied moral education”. There are three main manifestations. Firstly, everyone should pay attention to the cultivation of inner morality, even if they live alone, they should be self-disciplined and cautious. Secondly, ,as disciples, they should pay attention to the details of their words and actions when dealing with their teachers and masters, and be sincere and humble in situations such as seeking advice, traveling together, and sweeping. Thirdly, as officials, they should educate the people according to local conditions and the times, “Practice the six rites, clarify the seven teachings, and Doing eight things”, pay attention to the regulation of the people’s bodies by etiquette, and promote the integrity and simplicity of the people and the peace and harmony of the society. The “Three Rites” fully considered the fact that “the body shapes morality”, and the concept of moral education in them has gone through thousands of years. Today, we abandon formality and inherit Zhongzheng, witnessing the wisdom of the sages to enlighten the present and guide the future.

汉匈关系演变下朔方防务的形势和发展

The development and evolution of the relationship between the Han and the Hun regime is the main clue to the historical evolution of northern border regions of China from the end of the third century BC to the end of the first century AD.During the 300 year coexistence of the Han and Hun regime, the cycles of war and peace recurred until the Southern and Northern Hun goun our separate ways .During this period, the Shuofang region changed hands multiple times between the Hun and Han regimes, and the defense system of the Shuofang region in the Western Han Dynasty also experienced a development process from scratch to abolition.In the early Western Han Dynasty, the Shuofang area was under the control of the Hun. After Emperor Wu of Han conquered the Hun, he expanded his territory for thousands of miles, and the establishment of Shuofang County was the first step in advancing his defense project northward.On this basis, the construction of Shuofang County has been continuously improved, forming a progressive defense engineering system layer by layer.After Huhanye Chanyu annexed the Han regiem, the Western Han dismissed the outer cities,Abandoned beacon towers,and the Shuofang defense system entered a state of “preparation but not use”. During the alternation of the Two Han Dynasties and the early years of the Eastern Han, the Hun and Han regiems engaged in fierce competition in the Shuofang area, resulting in the Eastern Han having to merge Shuofang County.

『사기』 「조선열전」에 나타난 패수 위치 고찰

Regarding the geography of ancient Korea, the location of the Pei River, which formed the border between the Western Han dynasty and the Joseon of Wiman, has long been a subject of sharp debate. This is because the Pei River is regarded as the western boundary of Gojoseon. The problem is that since the name Pei was recorded in the Records of the Shiji (史記), the course of the river has changed over time, and so various claims about its position have been presented. The theories concerning the location of the Pei River can be divided into the Korean Peninsula theories (Taedong River, Cheongcheon River, Yalu River), the Liaodong Peninsula theories (Yuni River, Hun River), and the former province of Liaoxi theories (Daling River, Luan River, Chaobai River). The theories claiming that the Pei River is either the Cheongcheon River or the Yalu River in North Korea have received the most support from domestic academia. However, the Korean Peninsula theories and the Liaodong Peninsula theories both have a problem in that the location and direction of the Pei River were not verified according to records made around the time such as the Hanshu (漢書), the Shuowen Jiezi (說文解字), and the Shuijing (水經). There was a Pei River on the border of Liaodong during the Western Han and, at that time, Liaodong appears to have been located in literature in the present-day Beijing area. Since the capital of Wiman Joseon was said to be in Changli County, Hebei Province, the Pei River recorded in the Records of the Shiji can only be a river between Beijing and Changli Count

Effects of weathering on FTIR spectra and origin traceability of archaeological amber: The case of the Han Tomb of Haihun Marquis, China

The archaeological amber artefacts undergone inescapable various degrees of weathering (typical irreversible oxidation) would change of the appearance characteristics and internal compositions of amber, further resulting in alternations to the peak shape/position or signal noises in infrared spectra, which brings challenges in origin traceability of archaeological amber. This research firstly reported a reference database of infrared fingerprint signatures of more than 113 pieces of different degrees of geological oxidised amber from Burma, Baltic region, and Fushun (a city in China) to facilitate validation and further comparison with archaeological amber artefacts. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) were applied to discriminate infrared spectra data for dimensionality reduction, classification, and prediction. In this research, four cherished pieces of archaeological amber artefacts (No.1-No.4) excavated from the Haihun Marquis' Tomb of the Western Han Dynasty were investigated as a case study to source the archaeological amber. The external and internal features of them were observed using an optical microscopy. A non-destructive analysis (attenuated total reflection Flourier transformed infrared spectroscopy [ATR-FTIR]) was performed on the archaeological amber artefacts (No.1-No.4), and different degrees of geological oxidised amber reference samples. Results from the infrared spectrum of archaeological amber artefact No.2 revealed peaks at 1226, 1149, 1035, and 974 cm−1, which predominantly existed in the most Burmese amber. Archaeological amber artefacts (No.3 and No.4) displayed obvious oxidation characteristics (dark red colour, serious cracks), the FTIR peaks of which at 1050, 921, 553 and 476 cm−1 converged with that of the Burmese oxidised amber. However, the infrared spectrum of No.1 did not match well with the FITR spectra characteristics of Baltic, Burmese and Fushun amber. PCA was further applied to reduce the dimension of spectra data, and the 15 principal component scores with high contribution were evaluated in LDA to obtain accurate classification results and prediction results. The prediction results indicated that four archaeological amber artefacts excavated from Haihun Marquis' Tomb were all from Burma based on the current existing detection and analysis techniques.The archaeological amber artefacts witnessed the cultural exchange and mutual interaction on the Silk Road, and Burmese amber materials were delivered to China during the period of the Western Han Dynasty by road or via the Maritime Silk Road.

From diversity to monopoly: major economic policy change in the Western Han Dynasty revealed by lead isotopic analysis

From diversity to monopoly: major economic policy change in the Western Han Dynasty revealed by lead isotopic analysis

A 2200-year-old document of planning history: the border city planning system in Chao Cuo’s memorials to the throne

ABSTRACT A series of memorials to the throne written by Chao Cuo (200–154 B.C.), a high-ranking official of the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–A.D. 24), contained systematic thoughts and methods of border city planning, and could be regarded as a valuable 2200-year-old document of planning history. Based on the textual interpretation of the classical texts, a historical analysis method that mixes theoretical construction and empirical evidence is applied to analyse the planning thoughts and methods proposed in Chao Cuo's works, including the strategic layout of human and land resources at the territorial scale, city site selection based on natural geographical conditions, multi-scale constructions of physical space from region to residence and social governance balancing people's livelihood and military affairs. The purpose of the planning system proposed by Chao Cuo was to build cites that were suitable for both military defence and people's daily lives, so that people would settle in the frontier and form a stable military force to resist enemies. Chao's works explain a typical feature of ancient Chinese city planning as an instrument of political governance, and demonstrated the interaction between urban form and way of life.

A case of septic arthritis of the hip in Central Plains, China, during the Western Han Dynasty (3rd century BCE–1st century CE)

ObjectiveSeptic arthritis is not commonly reported in paleopathology. This study aims to provide a differential diagnosis of septic arthritis by looking at a case from ancient China. We also aim to add to the current literature on septic arthritis in paleopathology. MaterialsOne adult male skeleton recovered from the Dapuzi Cemetery, Shaanxi, dating to the Western Han Dynasty (3rd century BCE–1st century CE). MethodsMacroscopic observations were conducted. ResultsThe lytic appearance and massive new bone formation on the left acetabulum of M142 are compatible with septic arthritis. The hip pathology greatly influenced his stature. The two femur shafts present different degrees of robusticity. He also showed severe osteoarthritis. ConclusionsThe individual suffered from septic arthritis of the hip, of unknown cause, for a long period, which greatly influenced his daily life. Complications included osteoarthritis, shortened stature, and difficulties in walking. SignificanceThis study offers a new case of septic arthritis and provides insight into the people who guarded the royal tombs in the West Han Dynasty. LimitationsThe skeleton is not well-preserved, limiting observations of bony changes to other areas of the body.

A reexamination of the offices of Three Excellencies in the final years of the Western Han, and Four Advisers under Wang Mang’s Xin Dynasty

<p>秦至西漢本以丞相為宰相，到東漢演變成地位相等的三公並列宰相。西漢晚期至新朝是從獨相制變化為多相制的關鍵時期，本文旨在釐清三公官制成立的過程。西漢晚期的兩次三公官改制，目標是以中朝的大司馬與外朝的丞相、御史大夫並列宰相。將大司馬改造成和外朝的丞相具有相同職能的職官，是三公官改制的關鍵。大司馬本來是一個頭銜，由輔政的將軍兼任，沒有印綬、官屬。經歷兩次改制後，大司馬獲得印綬、官屬，得到宰相的辦事機構及監督百官執行權，也要承擔調和陰陽、安輯百姓的責任。在選任上，大司馬本來常以任近侍官的外戚擔任，選任丞相、御史大夫則重視循序漸進的任官資歷。改制後，過去任官資歷足以擔任丞相的一般官吏也能任大司馬。儘管大司馬經過兩次改制逐漸「外朝化」，它始終未失去在宮中「領尚書事」輔政的權力，與另外二公並非同質的職官。直到王莽建立新朝時，大司馬才失去輔政權，完成外朝化，三公也確立分職，改制遂告完成。不過三公官似乎不能滿足王莽對宰輔的想像，他以古制為基礎，另設高於三公的四輔。四輔不但與三公一起管理全國政事，也在宮中輔政，為兼攬內、外的宰相。東漢僅繼承三公官，兼治內外的四輔則未被採用。</p> <p> </p><p>In the periods of Qin and Western Han dynasties, Imperial Chancellors (chengxiang 丞相) served as chief aides to the emperor – zaixiang (宰相), a role later ceded to the Three Excellencies (san gong 三公) by the time of the Eastern Han. Between the end of the Western Han, and the establishment of the Xin Dynasty, a pivotal change occurred in the role of the chief aide – it went from being held by a single chancellor, to a collective function. This study aims to expound the formation of the latter, embodied in the system of Three Excellencies. The nature of the Three Excellencies was reformed twice in the final years of the Western Han, with the aim of endowing the Marshal of State (dasima 大司馬) in the Inner Court alongside the Imperial Chancellor (chengxiang 丞相) and the Imperial Counsellor (yushi dafu 御史大夫) of the Outer Court with the function of zaixiang. A key change in the process of reforming the system of Three Excellencies was making the functions of Marshal of State identical to those of Imperial Chancellor. Marshal of State was originally an official title given to generals tasked with assisting the ruler, but individuals holding it were not given imperial seals, or subordinate bureaucrats. After two reforms, Marshals of State received imperial seals, and subordinates, and were given administrative, and supervisory powers of zaixiang, as well as tasked with maintaining a cosmic balance, and peace among the populace. Originally, the individuals selected for the position of Marshal of State were often distaff relatives of personal imperial attendants, while those tapped for positions of Imperial Chancellor, and Imperial Counsellor were qualified public officials advancing through the ranks. After reforms, officials qualified to hold the post of Imperial Chancellor could also become Marshals of State. Although the responsibilities of Marshal of State have gradually moved from the Inner to the Outer Court following the two reforms, this position never entirely lost its ‘internal’ prerogatives of the Manager of the Affairs of the Masters of Writing (ling shangshushi 領尚書事), which set it apart from the other two Excellencies. Only with the establishment of Xin Dynasty by Wang Mang did the Marshals of the State lose their function of assisting the ruler, and their prerogatives were moved entirely to the Outer Court, which coincided with a clear separation of responsibilities between the Three Excellencies. The process of systemic reform was thus complete. However, the Three Excellencies did not seem to fulfill Wang Mang’s expectations for chief aides. The new emperor based the mode of his rule on ancient examples, and established the offices of Four Advisers (sifu 四輔), superior to the Three Excellencies. The new group held the reins of state administration alongside the Three Excellencies, on top of assisting the emperor as zaixiang, thus combining Inner, and Outer Court functions. The ensuing Eastern Han Dynasty continued the appointment of the Three Excellencies, but abandoned the combined internal-external office of Four Advisers.</p> <p> </p>

A Criticism of Confucianism’s Social Functions from “A Fu on the Marvelous Crow”: The Prophetic Meaning of the “Crow” in the Divination Culture

The intensely tragic narratives of A Fu on the Marvelous Crow show profound distrust of Confucianism while drawing heavily on ideas from Confucian classics. This reflects both the adorning quality of Confucianism in the Western Han Dynasty and the chaotic social circumstances in the Western Han Dynasty’s middle and late periods. The crow in this work represents “Ren” a core principle of Confucianism that means humanity, benevolence, and love, and her death represents the decline of “Ren.” The prevalent divination culture of the time serves as the context for this writing.