Western Carpathians Research Articles

Comparative diversity of vascular plants in black alder floodplain and swamp forests of Central European biogeographical regions.

Plant species diversity of black alder-dominated forests was studied in three biogeographical regions (Alpine, Continental and Pannonian) of Central Europe. They were represented by regions of the Polish Plain (Continental), the High Western Carpathians and Matricum of the Western Carpathians (Alpine) and the Pannonian lowland (Pannonian). We analysed 35 plots per region in order to identify: i) local alpha (α) diversity defined as the counted number of plant taxa occurring in a single sampling plot, ii) amongst-site beta (β) diversity, iii) regional (γ) diversity defined as the total species richness of all sampling plots and iv) zeta diversity (ζ) as a generalisation of beta diversity. We recorded a total of 432 vascular plant taxa in all bioregions; more than 13% were alien plants. Statistically significant differences in species richness (α) of both native and alien plants were found between assemblages of the regions. The High Western Carpathians showed the highest native and the lowest alien plant species richness. Total β-diversity was high in all regions, but significantly differed amongst regions only for alien plant species. Cumulative native and alien species richness (γ) was the highest and lowest in the High Western Carpathians and Matricum of Western Carpathians, respectively. Our results identified the High Western Carpathians as a hotspot for diversity of native plants in Central European black alder-dominated forests.

Podzemní vody hluboké struktury regionálního rozsahu: Pasohlávky–Laa an der Thaya

The regions of South Moravia in Czech Republic and Lower Austria are well-known for their use of thermal mineral waters for balneological purposes. Mineral waters are exploited from a Jurassic aquifer by two about 1.5 km deep wells MUS-3G (Pasohlavky, Czech Republic) and Laa TH Nord 1 (Laa an der Thaya, Austria). This Jurassic aquifer buried below the Neogene foredeep overlies a crystalline basement of Bohemian Massif and continues to the southeast below the Western Carpathians. Jurassic sediments which are mainly composed of autochthonous carbonates increase their thickness in this direction due to the decline of the crystalline basement. Because of this decline, there are two developments of Jurassic sediments, the shallower on the northwest and the deeper on the southeast. The zone between these two developments is known as the Mušov transition zone. For sustainable mineral water resources development, a groundwater flow pattern and recharge are evaluated. This evaluation includes both the hydrogeologic structure of Jurassic carbonates and hydraulically continuous underlying and overlying rocks. Because of the considerable depth of this hydrogeologic structure, which ranges from 100 to 3 000 metres below sea level, this study was based mostly on archive reports related to deep wells at the study area. The extent of studied units was identified on well-log data and geophysical survey interpretation. The resulting groundwater level contour map is based on the spatial distribution of hydraulic heads ranging approx. from 180 to 220 metres above sea level (masl) that were derived from pressure and water density conditions at the Jurassic aquifer. The general direction of groundwater flow is from northwest and southeast to the drainage zone (hydraulic head approx. 170–190 masl) identified in the middle of the studied area, which is identical to a course of the Mušov transition zone and parallel to the course of Dyje river (water table 170–180 masl). The northwestern part of the studied hydrogeological structure also differs from the southeastern part in a lower total mineralization which indicates active inflow of fresh water. The study was also enhanced by a spatial distribution of hydraulic parameters of all modelled units. These parameters were derived from hydrodynamic tests. The hydraulic conductivity values for the major Jurassic aquifer range from 6.0 × 10-4 to 1.3 × 10-9 m/s. The occurrence of the higher hydraulic conductivity near the drainage zone indicates the presence of a well-developed drainage network.

The ground-level ozone concentration in forest and urban environments in central Slovakia.

This paper analyses data by summarising the concentration values of ground-level ozone (GLO). The study area is situated in central Slovakia and is part of the Western Carpathians. These measurements were carried out between 2015 and 2020, implementing Werner’s method working with passive samplers. The highest average and the highest absolute GLO deposition values were 30.93 ppb and 61.06 ppb, respectively, recorded in August 2015 in the forest in the Kremnické vrchy Mts. The lowest average GLO value in the whole measuring period was 17.72 ppb, measured in the town of Zvolen; the absolute minimum was 4.43 ppb, recorded in April 2016 on an open plot in the Kremnické vrchy Mts. The GLO formation over the study area has not yet reached a steady rate. Since 2007, the developmental trend has been increasing. Statistically significant differences in GLO concentrations were confirmed between the localities with different airborne pollutions. However, the analysis of the existing ozone concentration values showed considerable differences, especially related to the time pattern. The spatial variability was equalised. The extreme values, while remarkable, were dangerous, especially in the forest stands in the Kremnické vrchy Mts., where they were 14 times above the critical level of 32.5 ppb O3. The dominant factor influencing the GLO concentration was global radiation. The effects of average temperature and rainfall total were less important.

Spring phenology of oak stands in the Western Carpathians: validation of satellite metrics from MODIS using ground-based observations

Abstract The study focuses on the validation of the leaf unfolding (LU) onset of oak stands in the Western Carpathians in 2000–2021 derived from MODIS satellite data. LU onset was derived from the annual trajectories of the Normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) fitted with a double sigmoid logistic function. The satellite metric Growing speed day (GSD) corresponding to the LU onset is represented by the first derivative of the sigmoid function. Ground-based observations from 22 phenological stations of the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMI) were used to validate the date of GSD. The results showed a good agreement between the medians of ground- and satellite-based LU onset dates. In addition to the median, the LU onset at the 5th and 95th percentiles were compared. For both percentiles, we found differences in the onset from MODIS and SHMI. The 5th percentile of the LU onset derived from MODIS was determined later than the one from SHMI data. With the 95th percentile, it was the opposite. As a result, the range determining the duration of LU onset from MODIS was significantly shorter than from SHMI observations. The trend analyses over the period 2000–2021 revealed a shift to the earlier onset of LU ~ 0.33 day.year−1 (p = 0.13) from satellite and ~ 0.32 day.year−1 from ground-based observations (p = 0.08). The validated LU onset and trends using the median allow analysing of the oak stands response to changing environmental conditions. However, the differences at the 5th and 95th percentiles, i.e. at the beginning and the end of the LU onset duration, remained unexplained.

Divergent growth responses of healthy and declining spruce trees to climatic stress: A case study from the Western Carpathians

Long-lived tree species optimize resource allocation processes, and there are likely trade-offs between the growth and response to environmental stressful conditions. The study aims to investigate the growth of healthy and declining Norway spruce trees using dendrochronological analysis. We have selected a natural high mountain spruce population and established 27 sampling plots in Poľana Mts. We measured 270 trees, from which we visually evaluated 133 individuals. Moreover, 51 trees were sampled for increment cores. Our study reveals thatspecific extreme combination of winter, spring and summer temperatures and precipitation sums within the particular year 1974 induced long-term growth divergence of neighboring spruce trees of comparable age and size and differentiated between healthy and declining (highly defoliated) trees. This period accounts for a decrease in size of relativized increments by 30.2% in declining trees compared to visually healthy individuals. Trees with a low ability to recover from climatic stress compensate the response to environmental conditions by lower growth rates. In high mountain temperate forests, the long-term growth decline of spruce trees last about 40 years. The single-tree selection silvicultural system should be preferred in high mountain conditions, where frequent small-scale, low-intensity disturbances drive stand dynamics. Trees showing low growth resilience to revealed combination of weather conditions should be preferentially removed from stands , especially within the transformation of even-aged spruce monocultures using selective cuttings.

Large old trees increase growth under shifting climatic constraints: Aligning tree longevity and individual growth dynamics in primary mountain spruce forests.

In a world of accelerating changes in environmental conditions driving tree growth, tradeoffs between tree growth rate and longevity could curtail the abundance of large old trees (LOTs), with potentially dire consequences for biodiversity and carbon storage. However, the influence of tree-level tradeoffs on forest structure at landscape scales will also depend on disturbances, which shape tree size and age distribution, and on whether LOTs can benefit from improved growing conditions due to climate warming. We analyzed temporal and spatial variation in radial growth patterns from ~5000 Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] H. Karst) live and dead trees from the Western Carpathian primary spruce forest stands. We applied mixed-linear modeling to quantify the importance of LOT growth histories and stand dynamics (i.e., competition and disturbance factors) on lifespan. Finally, we assessed regional synchronization in radial growth variability over the 20th century, and modeled the effects of stand dynamics and climate on LOTs recent growth trends. Tree age varied considerably among forest stands, implying an important role of disturbance as an age constraint. Slow juvenile growth and longer period of suppressed growth prolonged tree lifespan, while increasing disturbance severity and shorter time since last disturbance decreased it. The highest age was not achieved only by trees with continuous slow growth, but those with slow juvenile growth followed by subsequent growth releases. Growth trend analysis demonstrated an increase in absolute growth rates in response to climate warming, with late summer temperatures driving the recent growth trend. Contrary to our expectation that LOTs would eventually exhibit declining growth rates, the oldest LOTs (>400 years) continuously increase growth throughout their lives, indicating a high phenotypic plasticity of LOTs for increasing biomass, and a strong carbon sink role of primary spruce forests under rising temperatures, intensifying droughts, and increasing bark beetle outbreaks.

Distribution patterns at different spatial scales reveal reproductive isolation and frequent syntopy among divergent lineages of an amphipod species complex in Western Carpathian streams

AbstractRecent discoveries of vast cryptic diversity among various aquatic invertebrates pose a challenge for understanding their ecology and biodiversity patterns, as well as for conservation. We studied the distribution, potential hybridization and habitat preferences of divergent lineages of the hyperdiverse Gammarus fossarum species complex (Crustacea: Amphipoda) in their contact zone in the Western Carpathians (Central Europe), to obtain insights into processes that may influence lineage coexistence. We initially screened over 60 sites to assess the regional distribution, confirming the presence of four lineages in streams of the study area. Two to three lineages were found to be syntopic at almost half the sites. Subsequently, nine such localities were studied in detail for the mesohabitat distribution (fast vs. slow water flow), pairing preferences, and temporal stability of the Gammarus community. A significant fraction of regional spatial variation was explained by the position in the dendritic river network, altitude, stream width, and anthropogenic stress. At the local scale, however, we did not find differences in distribution between mesohabitats with contrasting flow rates. Mixed precopulatory pairs in syntopy were extremely rare, even under highly imbalanced lineage ratios, confirming a strong prezygotic reproductive barrier between the studied lineages. This was congruent with species delimitation analyses using molecular markers, which confirmed the absence of any recent gene flow. The frequent and apparently temporally stable syntopy of these reproductively isolated Gammarus lineages warrants further research on the processes that may facilitate this coexistence, focusing on potential finer differences in their ecology, functional morphology, or biotic interactions.

Stacked Gilbert-type deltas filling an incised palaeovalley along the cratonward margin of a foreland basin (Miocene, Western Carpathian Foredeep)

The coarse-grained Brno sands are an important groundwater aquifer and represent a volumetrically significant component of the Lower Badenian/Middle Miocene sedimentary infill of the Western Carpathian Foredeep, a foreland basin formed on the eastern margin of the Bohemian Massif in front of the Western Carpathians. The integration of core and outcrop facies analysis, summary of facies features, depositional processes and architectures, and integration of provenance analysis have led to a new depositional model for the Brno sands as the product of Gilbert-type delta systems prograding into an incised palaeovalley developed on the outer foreland basin margin. The position, shape and morphology of the palaeovalley were influenced by pre-Neogene basement faults trending NW–SE. The Gilbert-type deltas recognized can be classified as foreset-dominated with other elements subordinate. The foreset beds mainly reflect low-density turbidites, with varied but important evidence of deposits of high-density turbidity currents, cohesionless debris flows and debris falls. The thick foreset deposits show, in detail, repetitive successive prograding-retrograding episodes. These are interpreted as rapid high-frequency pulses of relative sea level change i.e. as high-frequency depositional sequences. The deltaic deposition of the Brno sands was terminated by deposits of a shoal-water delta and the sands were finally drowned by a thick pile of offshore pelagic clays. The provenance of Brno sands is located into the nearby geological units. Redeposition from the older basin infill also played an important role.

On the origin of vesuvianite-rich rodingites from the Western Carpathians, Slovakia

Rodingite represents a particular metasomatic rock type that occurs as dykes or lenses in association with serpentinized ultramafic rocks and typically consists of Ca-rich, often hydrated silicate minerals. Rodingites have been recognized as a source of information on fluid compositions and their circulation in both ocean floor and subduction environments. Yet, the nature of the protoliths, the chemistry and the origin of fluids, the details of fluid-rock interaction, and the metamorphic context remain often obscure. This work investigates some of these questions in the case of rodingites from the Western Carpathians through petrological, mineralogical and geochemical studies. Rodingites are here associated in the field with serpentinized tectonically dismembered bodies of ultramafic rocks embeded into Carboniferous metasediments. They mostly consist of vesuvianite, diopside, and hydrated garnet with minor titanite, chlorite, epidote, calcite and FeTi oxides. Three successive hydrothermal events were recognized: 1) formation of diopside, vesuvianite and garnet, 2) formation of a second generation of vesuvianite and garnet together with titanite and minor chlorite, and 3) formation of a mineral assemblage consisting of epidote, chlorite and calcite. The first two events represent a pervasive and intense rodingitization process, whereas the third one represents late, channeled, fluid circulation under greenschist facies conditions. The presence of FeTi oxides influences the mineralogy and the whole rock chemistry of the investigated rodingites. Rutile and ilmenite are commonly associated with titanite and garnet, and whole rock analyses can reach up to 9.2 wt% TiO2. Vesuvianite and garnet also incorporate a significant amount of titanium. The lack of primary minerals, the mineral composition as well as high CaO and low SiO2 contents demonstrate high extent of Ca-metasomatism. The high modal amount of vesuvianite and the immobility of Al during metasomatic processes suggest that the protolith was relatively Al-rich. Taking into account the REE patterns of whole-rock and minerals, the high TiO2 content and the local Fe-Ti-rich accumulations, we suggest that the protoliths were more or less Fe-Ti-rich gabbroic rocks initially occurring in association with the serpentinized ultramafic body.

Morphology of Radhostium carpaticum Plička and Říha, 1989 in new finds from the Outer Western Carpathians (Upper Cretaceous – Eocene flysch deposits of the Biele Karpaty Mountains, Slovakia)

A new find of one specimen of the relatively rare trace fossil Radhostium carpaticum is the subject of this morphological study. The new find from the Biele Karpaty Unit, is preserved on the soles of turbiditic sandstones within the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene turbiditic sequence of the Svodnice Formation in the Biele Karpaty Mountains, Slovakia. The morphological study of the trace fossil is based on this and the available published individuals of Radhostium. The burrow reveals a regular morphological system consisting of cylindrical U-shaped shafts (elements) arranged in a row linked by a horizontal burrow. Morphology shows that the trace fossil most likely corresponds to an open burrow system of domichnion without back fill. This morphology indicates that it is essentially a branched burrow and does not represent the chevron structure typical for trace fossils of molluscs. However, this morphology is comparable to no known form, so the producer of the trace fossil cannot be reliably determined. Referred ichnospecies of Radhostium have been recorded in three geographic regions (Alps, Carpathians, Apennines). All specimens of R. carpaticum occur in Upper Cretaceous and Palaeocene turbiditic deep-marine sequences. Thus, Radhostium occurs within a relatively narrow stratigraphic range in interconnected palaeogeographic areas in the Western Tethys.

Phylogeography and colonization pattern of subendemic round-leaved oxeye daisy from the Dinarides to the Carpathians

The Carpathians are an important biodiversity hotspot and a link between mountain ranges on the European continent. This study investigated the phylogeography of one the Carpathian subendemics, Leucanthemum rotundifolium, which is distributed throughout the range and in one isolated population outside it. Range-wide sampling was used to examine phylogeographic patterns by sequencing uniparentally inherited chloroplast markers that exemplify seed dispersal. Reconstruct Ancestral State in Phylogenies (RASP) software, Bayesian binary Markov Chain Monte Carlo (BBM) analysis, and ecological niche modeling based on concatenated results of five algorithms were used to infer migration routes and examine links with other species through phylogeny. The round-leaved oxeye daisy is an example of organisms that reached the Carpathians through a southern “Dacian” migration route, most probably through long-distance dispersal. Dating placed the events in the Pleistocene and supported migrations during cooler periods and stasis/isolation followed by separation in the interglacials. Haplotype diversification indicated that after L. rotundifolium reached the area around the Fagaras Mountains, several migration events occurred leading to colonization of the Southern Carpathians followed by migration to the Apuseni Mountains, the Eastern Carpathians, and finally the Western Carpathians. The results are consistent with previous phylogeographic studies in this region and indicate several novel patterns.

Sex differences in pelvic and sacral size in wildcat from the Western Carpathians

Abstract Sexual differences in the wildcat were evaluated on 15 variables in 49 pelvic and 38 sacral bones in wildcat from the Western Carpathians. Our data confirmed a male-biased sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in the pelvic and sacral bones. The effect size was very large for two pelvic (SB, smallest width of the shaft of the ilium; and LAR, length of the acetabulum) and two sacral traits (GB, greatest width across the wings; and BFcr, greatest width of the cranial articular surface). Our different allometric patterns in pelvic and sacral measures in both sexes may also be important in mode of locomotion. These findings highlight the need for morphometric analysis of species at the regional as well global level.

Low sensitivity of Pinus mugo to surface ozone pollution in the subalpine zone of continental Europe.

High altitudes have been exposed to enhanced levels of surface ozone (O3) concentrations over recent decades compared to the pre-industrial era. The responses of vegetation to this toxic pollutant are species-specific and depend on the climate conditions. In this paper, we explored the reaction of Pinus mugo (P. mugo) to O3-induced stress in the continental climate of an ozone-rich mountain area in the High Tatra Mountains (Western Carpathians). The effects of O3 doses modelled by a deposition model, O3 concentrations and other factors on P. mugo were identified from (a) satellite-based data via NDVI (normalised differenced vegetation index) over 2000-2020 and (b) visible injury on needle samples gathered from P. mugo individuals at ground-truth sites in 2019 and 2020. Analysing the NDVI trend, we observed non-significant changes (p > 0.05) in the greenness of P. mugo despite growing in an environment with the average seasonal O3 concentration around 51.6 ppbv, the maximum hourly concentrations more than 90 ppbv and increasing trend of O3 doses by 0.1mmolm-2 PLA (plant leaf area) year-1. The visible O3 injury of samples collected at study sites was low (mean injury observed on 1-10% of needles' surface), and the symptoms of injury caused by other biotic and abiotic factors prevailed over those caused by O3. In addition, the correlation analyses between NDVI and the climatic factors indicated a significant (p < 0.05) and positive relationship with photosynthetic active radiation (R = 0.45) in July, and with stomatal conductance (R = 0.52) and temperature factor (R = 0.43) in August. Therefore, we concluded that the positive effect of climate conditions, which support the growth processes of P. mugo, may suppress the negative effect of the mean O3 doses of 17.8mmolm-2 PLA accumulated over the growing season.

The Ďumbier – Prašivá high K calc-alkaline granite suite (Low Tatra Mts., Western Carpathians): Insights into their evolution from geochemistry and geochronology

The Ďumbier – Prašivá high K calc-alkaline granite suite (Low Tatra Mts., Western Carpathians): Insights into their evolution from geochemistry and geochronology

Penumbras of the planetary mine: experiencing (post-)mining transformations in the Western Carpathians of Romania

ABSTRACT This article builds on the recognition that the extraction of minerals assumed over the last few decades a transcendence of geological space-time and a corresponding expansion at planetary scale. Little attention was devoted to the long-term but currently abandoned mines awaiting their potential reopening and can be said to find themselves at a juncture. On the one hand, they confront a complex heritage of past mining operations (including pollution), vivid memories surrounding past practices and their residents’ work relationships. On the other hand, there is still the remote but distinct possibility of experiencing a mining renaissance, under the conditions of the so-called planetary mine. We ask what are the affective, cognitive and corporeal dimensions of the local experience of transitioning from the past practices toward an uncertain future of grand-scale mineral exploitation. Based on 39 semi-structured interviews conducted in the mining towns of Zlatna, Abrud and Baia de Arieș and surrounding villages, we address several topics that emerged from the interviews: hope and hopelessness, dependence on the mine and denial of pollution. Our findings provide a nuanced understanding of how bottom-up development can be conceived and what are the challenges of the current phase of planetary mining.

Dynamics of internal isoprenoid metabolites in young Picea abies (Norway spruce) shoots during drought stress conditions in springtime

Currently, large areas of Picea abies (Norway spruce) stands in Europe are increasingly affected by drought and heat waves. Moreover, early spring drought has occurred with much higher frequency. Our work focuses on physiological changes induced by drought in four-year-old spruce seedlings during shoot elongation. We investigated drought effect on photosynthetic rate, concentration of abscisic acid and its metabolites, amount and composition of monoterpenes in needles of seedlings from five different provenances (altitude range 550–1280 m above sea level) in Western Carpathians. Spruce seedlings subjected to one-month drought stress of moderate intensity (about 50% of soil water content at the end of experiment) showed significant reduction of CO2 uptake and increased concentration of ABA related to untreated controls. Induced drought affected needle monoterpene content and composition. Observed changes in drought-induced physiological parameters were influenced by seedling provenance. The provenance from 920 m above sea level showed the greatest sensitivity to drought with significantly highest ABA content and, at the same time, a clear decline of CO2 uptake and amounts of total monoterpenes. Our results indicating intra-specific provenance-related variability in physiological response of spruce seedlings to drought may provide a basis for improved reforestation strategies in drought risk areas.

Siltation of Small Water Reservoir under Climate Change: A Case Study from Forested Mountain Landscape of Western Carpathians, Slovakia

The effectiveness of small reservoirs in a mountain landscape continuously decreases over time due to the gradual siltation. We examined two hypotheses about the enhanced siltation rate and the constant relative contribution of unpaved roads to the siltation of a small water reservoir in the period 1990–2014, with pronounced climate change, compared to the reference period 1970–1989. Analysis was based on deposit volumes extracted from the reservoir in 1989 and detected at the reservoir bottom in 2014. The geographical information systems, image analysis and universal soil loss equation were applied to model the soil erosion according to the two sources—catchment area and roads—to study siltation processes in depth. Despite expectations, rates of siltation were almost unchanged in compared periods. The positive changes in vegetation cover (the forest expansion and changes in forest management practices) offset the enlarged rain erosivity. On the other hand, road erosion increased by 41% from 1990 and became twice as much a contributor to sediments compared to 1970–1989. The intensity of erosion from roads was from 13 to 29 times greater than from other areas. Therefore, proper maintenance of road networks could rapidly decrease reservoir siltation. Moreover, we recommend continuous cover forestry as a critical measure for central Europe’s forested regions to prevent growing erosion pressures.

Allometric models for estimating aboveground biomass of young Norway spruce trees in the Western Carpathians, Slovakia

Abstract In the period of climate change, it is necessary to have biomass models for trees of all sizes to make precise estimations of biomass forest stocks to quantify carbon sequestration by forest cover. Therefore, we created allometric models of aboveground biomass in young Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) trees including main components, i.e. stem, branches and needles. The models used 200 sampled trees from 10 sites located in the central part of the Western Carpathians in Slovakia. The models, i.e. allometric regression relations implemented stem base diameter (diameter d0) and/or tree height. Moreover, using the derived allometric relations and a constant annual diameter increment of 10 mm, we calculated quasi-annual aboveground biomass production with regard to diameter d0. While stem had the largest contribution to aboveground biomass, followed by needles and branches, a different situation was revealed for the annual aboveground biomass production with the largest share of needles followed by stem and branches. Finally, we implemented the allometric models in a specific forest stand, where repetitive measurements were performed within 14 consecutive years. The results showed for example nearly 650 kg of the aboveground biomass per 102 m2 at the stand age of 10 years. The new biomass models can be applied to estimate the aboveground biomass stock in Norway spruce dominating stands in the Western Carpathians. Since the models are based on both diameter d0 and tree height a user can choose which variable is more suitable for particular conditions.

Phenakite and bertrandite: products of post-magmatic alteration of beryl in granitic pegmatites (Tatric Superunit, Western Carpathians, Slovakia)

AbstractThe beryllium silicate minerals phenakite and bertrandite have been identified in granitic pegmatite dykes of the beryl-columbite subtype of Variscan age (~340−355 Ma), associated with S- to I-type granitic rocks of the Tatric Superunit, Western Carpathians (Slovakia). The two beryllium silicates and associated minerals were characterised by electron microprobe analysis, back-scattered electron petrography and cathodoluminescence imagery, X-ray diffraction and micro-Raman techniques. Phenakite and bertrandite form euhedral-to-anhedral crystals and aggregates in irregular domains and veinlets replacing primary magmatic beryl. A detailed textural study revealed a close genetic association of phenakite and bertrandite with secondary fine-grained quartz, K-feldspar and muscovite. Locally, clay phyllosilicate minerals, (with compositions similar to those of Fe-dominant hydrobiotite, beidellite, nontronite and saponite) occur as the youngest minerals. During the post-magmatic (hydrothermal) stage of the pegmatites, infiltration of aqueous K-bearing fluids at T ≈ 200–400°C resulted in the breakdown of magmatic beryl to secondary assemblages containing phenakite and bertrandite.

Changing natural conditions and their impact on the Mt. Śnieżnica landscape, Outer Western Carpathians – Reconstruction of the Holocene environment based on geochemical indices and radiocarbon dating

Environmental changes during the Holocene impacted the development of all civilizations, and it is important to understand the power of this influence through, for instance, the reconstruction of these changes. However, when the climate and environmental conditions of the deep past are analyzed, researchers need to rely on various types of proxy data that are only approximations of the required information. In addition, this type of information is often absent or has several gaps (hiatuses). In the present study, we analyzed a 4.4-m deep core excavated from the fen formed within the landslide body on the northern side of Mt. Śnieżnica in the Wyspowy Beskidy Mountains, the Outer Western Carpathians, southern Poland. In total, we analyzed 405 samples in terms of 29 geochemical components (e.g., nitrogen (N), carbon (C), sulfur (S), and the total organic carbon (TOC)) and physical properties, namely particle-size distribution, loss on ignition (LOI), and microcharcoal content. Additionally, to establish geochronology, we dated 27 samples of different biological materials using the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry radiocarbon method. A detailed examination of plant macrodetritus and wood anatomy supported our interpretation based on the geochemical data. The Mt. Śnieżnica landslide probably formed ca. 14,000 cal BP in the first phase of the Allerød Interstadial. For almost 9000 years, there were no appropriate terrain conditions for the long-term accumulation of organo-mineral materials. At ca. 4400 cal BP, peat accumulation commenced. The beginning of peat accumulation correlates with the global 4.2 Bond event of cold climate conditions. After another ca. 2000 years, the core sediments were dominated by limnetic mud, suggesting aquatic conditions in the landslide depression. This sudden shift in the characteristics of sedimentation is loosely linked to the boundary between the Subboreal and Subatlantic phases (ca. 2500 cal BP). The apparent dichotomy of the depositional record agrees with the reconstructed climatic conditions during the second part of the Holocene. Up to 3000 cal BP, the regional climate was warm and humid, which allowed fast biomass production and hillslope stabilization by trees. Forest fires occurred only at the beginning and end of this period (4400–3000 cal BP). After 3000 cal BP, the regional climate became cool and dry. In this period, we found evidence of intensified erosion, but it was unrelated to forest fire activity.