Western Black Sea Region Research Articles

Biomonitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban and industrial environments of the Western Black Sea Region, Turkey

This research was carried out in the cities of Zonguldak and Eregli, which have been characterized as urban and industrial environments of the Western Black Sea Region, Turkey, in order to assess the contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using mosses as biomonitors. The methodology involved the collection of moss samples (Hypnum cupressiforme), ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane, cleanup using silica gel and analysis by liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. The total PAH concentrations ranged from 78.1 to 1693.5ngg(-1) in Zonguldak and from 15.2 to 275.1ngg(-1) in Eregli. The total PAH concentration in Eregli was about six times lower than that in Zonguldak, revealing the importance of switching from coal to natural gas in residential heating. The diagnostic ratios and the correlation analysis have indicated that coal combustion and traffic emissions were the major PAH sources at both sites. The contour maps were constructed for the determination of spatial distributions of total PAHs, and it was shown for Zonguldak as well as for Eregli that the PAH pollution was much more predominant in highly populated regions. Moving away from the city centres, a gradual decrease in PAH pollution rates was observed.

Retrospective Evaluation of the Female Patients with Breast Cancer: Western Black Sea Region, Unicentered, Clinical Data of Oncology

Breast cancer is the most common female cancer in the world wide with 30% of all women cancer and second most common cause of cancer death in women. Oncology department of Bulent Ecevit University Faculty of Medicine is the only cancer center in western part of Black Sea region. We investigated retrospectively our data of women breast cancer between the period of 2000 and 2010 in this region. The mean age of the study population was 49.90 ± 12 years and mean follow-up time was 4 ± 2 years. The distribution of patients by the age, 25% or patients under 40 years old, 32% between the 40-50 years old and 43% of them over the 50 years old. 92.6% of the patients were presented with a palpable mass. The most common type of breast cancer was invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) in 312 patients (80%). Prognosis of the study population; 309 patients (80%) are surviving without any disease. Sixty-six patients (17%) had progression, 7 of 390 patients (1,8%) had local recurrence and 15 patients (3.8%) died. While the breast cancer is one of the most commonly seen solid organ tumors in Black Sea region and, based on the literature, no significant differences were observed for prognostic factors, longer life expectancy of the patients with advanced stage disease may be attributed to higher number of patients with hormonal positivity and therapy adherence.

Petrostratigraphic evolution of the Thrace Basin (Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey) within the context of Eocene-Oligocene post-collisional evolution of the Vardar-İzmir-Ankara suture zone

Eocene-Oligocene paleogeographic/paleotectonic reconstructions of the Rhodopian – northern Aegean – western Black Sea region largely ignore the Thrace Basin, a large sedimentary basin up to 9 km thick that has been long interpreted as a forearc basin developed in a context of northward subduction. Recent structural, stratigraphic, petrologic, and sedimentologic data challenge this notion and may instead be interpreted within a context of upper-plate extension during the complex transition between the collisional tectonic regime related to the closure of Vardar-İzmir-Ankara oceanic realm and the extensional regime characterizing the Oligocene-Neogene evolution of the Aegean and peri-Aegean regions. The detritus filling the Thrace Basin was derived from two main sediment source areas: (i) the mostly metamorphic terrains of the Rhodopes to the west and (ii) the Vardar-İzmir-Ankara and Biga (intra-Pontide?) subduction-accretion prisms to the southwest. During most of the Eocene-Oligocene, the entire basin was characterized by a complex physiography, as shown by commercial seismic lines in the subsurface and abrupt lateral facies change at the surface. Such physiography was controlled by a series of basement highs trending from WNW-ESE (in the eastern and northern portions of the basin) to WSW-ENE (in the western and southern portions of the basin) which influenced sediment dispersal and the areal distribution of paleoenvironments.

Mental Models of School for Preschool Children

<p style="text-align:justify">The aim of this study was to determine mental models of 334 pre-school children concerning school. Children in the city center of Kastamonu in the Western Black Sea region of Turkey were included. Content analysis was conducted on pictures drawn by the children, and the models were split into two groups, scientific and nonscientific. The scientific group was split into three types; the nonscientific group, into four. About 40% of the children had a scientificbased school perception, while 60% were nonscientific. No significant difference was found between the mental models of females and males. Few studies have investigated mental models, so this study fills a gap, but further studies would aid the understanding of the relevant pedagogic architecture.</p>

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE HONEY BEE (Apis mellifera L.) POPULATION OF THE WESTERN BLACK SEA REGION

Bu calismada Bati Karadeniz Bolgesi ari populasyonu toplam 37 morfolojik karakter yonunden tanimlanmistir. Bolgenin Zonguldak, Sakarya, Bolu, Duzce, Kastamonu ve Sinop illerinden toplam 102 isci ari ornegi degerlendirilmistir. Farkli illerden alinan ornekler arasinda cubital a damar uzunlugu (a), kanat B4 damar acisi, cubital indeks (CI) ve metatarsal indeks (MI) karakterlerince varyasyon belirlenmemistir. Diger 33 morfolojik karakter yonunden onemli varyasyon bulunmustur. Bolgenin yerli arisi icin ayirt edici en onemli morfolojik karakter scutellum rengidir. Bolge icerisinde Zonguldak, Sakarya, Bolu ve Duzce populasyonu digerlerinden daha fazla birbirlerine benzer ve ayri bir kume olusturmuslardir. Duzce yoresi arisi Sakarya ve Bolu arilariyla belirli duzeyde cakismislardir (overlaping). Bolge arilari morfolojik yapi yonunden Anadolu arisi (A. m. anatoliaca) ile bir benzerlik gostermemis ve daha cok Ege ve Gokceada arilarina benzer bulunmustur. MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE HONEY BEE (Apis mellifera L.) POPULATION OF THE WESTERN BLACK SEA REGION This study was conducted in order to determine and identify the morphological characteristics of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) population in the western Black Sea region. A total of 102 experimental worker honey bee samples were collected from Zonguldak, Sakarya, Bolu, Duzce, Kastamonu and Sinop provinces. From each sample, 15 workers were examined and 37 morphological characteristics were measured biometrically. Except length of cubital a vein (a), vein angle B4, cubital index (CI) and metatarsal index (MI), significant (P<0.05, P<0.01 and P<0.001) differences were found between the samples depending on the provinces where bees were located, with respect to other 33 morphological characters. The most discriminative morphological character of the region’s bee population was found to be the colour of scutellum. The worker bee samples of Zonguldak, Sakarya, Bolu and Duzce provinces were likely more resemble to each other than to those of the other provinces, particularly the bees of Duzce overlapped with those of Sakarya and Bolu provinces. It was found that the bees of the western Black Sea region were distant from the Anatolian honey bee subspecies (A. m. anatoliaca) but they were more similar to the honey bee populations of the Aegean region and Gokceada island, in terms of morphology.

Monitoring Spatial and Temporal Land Use/Cover Changes; a Case Study in Western Black Sea Region of Turkey

Rapid land use/land cover changes have taken place in many cities of Turkey. Land use and land cover changes are essential for wide range of applications. In this study, Landsat TM satellite imageries date from 1987, 1993, 2000 and 2010 were used to analyse temporal and spatial changes in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey. Zonguldak and Eregli two largest and economic important cities which have been active coal mining and iron fabric areas. Maximum Likelihood Classification technique was implemented and the results were represented in classes of open area, forest, agricultural, water, mining, urban and pollution in the sea. Urban areas on both cities increased from 1987 to 2010. The agricultural and open areas from 1987 to 2010 decreased in parallel to land use and land cover change in both cities. Meanwhile, forest areas increased continuously with about 20 % from 1987 to 2010 in both cities. As industrial activity, the coal fields doubled from 1987 to 2010.

Abnormal cervical cytology risk factors in the western black sea region and the importance of health insurance

To evaluate the prevalence of abnormal cervical cytological findings in the Western Black Sea Region and investigate an association between socio-demographic risk factors and the presence of cytological abnormalities. The reports of 11,539 cervical smears diagnosed according to Bethesda System 2001 version in the Pathology Department between January 2011 and December 2012 were reviewed retrospectively from the hospital records and cytopathology reports. Repeated smear results, unsatisfactory smear results, patients with known gynecologic malignancy history, smear results of patients with hysterectomy and smear results of patients whose socio-demographic information could not be obtained were excluded from the evaluation. The results of 7,740 patients who met the criteria for the study were evaluated. The prevalence of cervical cytological abnormalities was 1.8 % in general. The prevalence rates for atypical squamous cells with undetermined significance (ASC-US), atypical squamous cells, cannot exclude a high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (ASC-H), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL), and atypical glandular cells (AGC) were 1.16%, 0.11%, 0.29%, 0.15%, and 0.03% respectively. The prevalence of cytologically diagnosed cervical invasive neoplasia was 0.025%. Advanced age, low education level (primary school or less) and not having health insurance were found as to be risk factors for preinvasive and invasive lesions. Women who had a high school education and previously had a smear test had decreased risk for developing preinvasive and invasive lesions. This study shows prevalence of abnormal cervical cytology findings and associated risk factors in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey. The most important risk factor was identified as not having health insurance.

Mediastinal Masses; the Analysis of 28 Cases in the Western Black Sea Region

Mediastinal Masses; the Analysis of 28 Cases in the Western Black Sea Region

Changes in stem growth rates and root wood anatomy of oriental beech after a landslide event in Hanyeri, Bartın, Turkey

On 19 May 1998, a small-scale landslide occurred near Hanyeri, Bartın, in the western Black Sea region. The purpose of the study is to investigate the changes in stem growth rates and root wood anatomy of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky). According to results from 8 years before and after the event year, growth variation in the affected trees is significantly high. In the control trees, growth increases after the event year, and the growth variation is 116.22%; this value is 69.59% in the affected trees. However, the growth variation values for ±11 years are 107.69% and 81.36% in control and affected trees, respectively. Root wood anatomy also revealed a clear response in affected trees after the event year, and ring width on one side of the root showed an abrupt increase.

New locality record for Podarcis siculus hieroglyphicus (Berthold, 1842) (Squamata: Lacertidae) in the western Black Sea region of Anatolia

Six specimens of Podarcis siculus hieroglyphicus from Filyos, Zonguldak Province, in the western Black Sea region were collected. This new record extended eastward seriously (ca. 250 km) the known distribution area of the subspecies in Turkey. The meristic (pholidolial) and metric (morphometric) characters and color-pattern features of specimens collected from Filyos, Zonguldak, are given in detail and compared with the specimens from other known Turkish localities with regard to the literature. The specimens examined were similar to P. siculus hieroglyphicus specimens mentioned in the literature.

Concept design in virtual reality of a forestry trailer using a QFD-TRIZ based approach

Trailers are used to carry logs having specific dimensions for logging extraction operations, secondary transportation, and agricultural activities. The main objective of this study was the design of a timber trailer capable of manual loading operations and suitable for rough terrain conditions to be used in combination with a farm tractor in the western Black Sea region of Turkey. In the proposed methodology, a House of Quality diagram was used to transfer customer requirements into quality characteristics, and focus the development of the product toward customer satisfaction. Negative correlations between quality characteristics were solved using the TRIZ contradiction toolkit and generating different concepts. Inventive solutions provided by TRIZ were designed with parametric CAD software. Several concepts were compared in a participative design review session in an immersive virtual reality environment. To choose an optimal concept, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was used. The final concept has a total length of 3.35 m, width of 1.34 m, and height of 1.8 m. The mass is 2700 kg, the payload capacity is about 2.33 m^3, and the total volume of the chassis is 2.68 m^3. The angle of rollover is 26.9°, the door is reachable by 90% of the population, and the lower back analysis performed for the loading operation showed a maximum value of 2597 N. The final concept is capable of movement in steep terrain and with the presence of obstacles, carrying logs up to 3-m long. It is more productive among high-density stand trees, allows for ergonomic loading operations, and reduces environmental damage to soil and vegetation.

Effects of cultural treatments, seedling type and morphological characteristics on survival and growth of wild cherry seedlings in Turkey

Wild cherry (Prunus avium L.) is receiving increasing attention from foresters in Europe and Turkey for its fast growth, highly-valued wood and benefits for wildlife and biodiversity. Little documentation may be found concerning the selection of appropriate cultural treatments and the quality and types of seedlings used for wild cherry plantations. This study reports the effects of various combinations of intensive cultural treatments (including weed control, soil tillage, and fertilization) and seedling types on early growth, survival, and nutrition of one-year-old wild cherry seedlings out-planted on four different sites in the western Black Sea Region of Turkey. After two years, early seedling survival and growth were clearly enhanced for potted seedlings. For bare-root seedlings, initial seedling root-collar diameter and height successfully correlated with survival two years after planting. Seedlings with a root-collar diameter of 6-8 mm and height of 60-70 cm demonstrated the best survival rates in the field. The wild cherry seedlings were shown to be highly sensitive to herbaceous weed competition early in their establishment, warranting effective weed control. When used in addition to weed control, neither intensive fertilization nor soil tillage treatments significantly increased seedling survival and growth two years after planting. Therefore, intensive site preparation, as well as fertilization, are not recommended at this stage for planting sites without severe nutrient deficiencies.

Effects of cultural treatments, seedling type and morphological characteristics on survival and growth of wild cherry seedlings in Turkey

Wild cherry (Prunus avium L.) is receiving increasing attention from foresters in Europe and Turkey for its fast growth, highly-valued wood and benefits for wildlife and biodiversity. Little documentation may be found concerning the selection of appropriate cultural treatments and the quality and types of seedlings used for wild cherry plantations. This study reports the effects of various combinations of intensive cultural treatments (including weed control, soil tillage, and fertilization) and seedling types on early growth, survival, and nutrition of one-year-old wild cherry seedlings out-planted on four different sites in the western Black Sea Region of Turkey. After two years, early seedling survival and growth were clearly enhanced for potted seedlings. For bare-root seedlings, initial seedling root-collar diameter and height successfully correlated with survival two years after planting. Seedlings with a root-collar diameter of 6-8 mm and height of 60-70 cm demonstrated the best survival rates in the field. The wild cherry seedlings were shown to be highly sensitive to herbaceous weed competition early in their establishment, warranting effective weed control. When used in addition to weed control, neither intensive fertilization nor soil tillage treatments significantly increased seedling survival and growth two years after planting. Therefore, intensive site preparation, as well as fertilization, are not recommended at this stage for planting sites without severe nutrient deficiencies.

Levels of Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Butter Samples Collected from the Black Sea Region of Turkey

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the levels of 9 organochlorine compounds (aldrin, hexachlorobenzene, 2,4-DDE, 4,4-DDE, 2,4-DDT, 4,4-DDT, and α-, β-, and γ-HCH) in butter samples collected in the Eastern, Middle and Western Black Sea Regions of Turkey between October 2009 and June 2010. The liquid-liquid extraction method was used to extract the organochlorine compounds from the samples and the measurements were performed by using a gas chromatograph-electron capture detector system. DDT metabolites, aldrin, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and α-, and γ-HCH were not detected in the samples but β-HCH was detected in 3 of a total of 88 samples. In the first period, only one sample from the West Black Sea Region was β-HCH positive (0.014mgkg(-1)). The other β-HCH positive samples collected in Middle and West Black Sea Regions in the second period had a concentration of 0.066 and 0.019mgkg(-1), respectively. All concentrations of the detected compounds exceeded the legal limits of 0.003mgkg(-1) for β-HCH, as prescribed by the Turkish Food Codex, and therefore pose a potential health risk for consumers. The contamination detected is most likely due to the past usage of β-HCH in agriculture and its long term persistence in the environment. These results strongly suggest that further research should be focused on the detection of pesticide residues in agricultural areas across the nation.

An environmental assessment of forest stands damages caused by excavators during road construction in Beech forests

Construction of forest roads can cause short-term and long-term negative effects on forest ecosystems in different ways if they are not well planned and appropriately maintained. In this research, environmental damages caused by an excavator during road construction were examined in steep terrain covered by beech (Fagus orientalis L.) stands. The study was conducted along a 1.5 km road in western Blacksea Region of Turkey. All of the road construction operations were monitored during a construction period, and measurements of cross sections sizes and stand damages were measured during and after the construction activities. The road construction was evaluated according to the appropriate method and standards. The average widths of roadway, fill slope and construction zone were 4.82, 6.91, and 16.61 m, respectively. Along the 1,500 m road, forested area impacted was 24,915 m2 while the number of trees cut was 1,495 and rate of the damaged trees below the fill slope was found to be 24.7 %. In the study, based on the appropriate method and standards, less forested area might have been impacted (23 %). As a result of regression analysis, it was found that the rate of damaged trees increased as the values of the proportion of rocks, the width of the road surface and the width of the cut-slope increased. To reduce the negative effects of forest road construction on the environment, new forest road construction by excavators should be performed using appropriate methods within mountainous terrains.

Characterization of hypovirulent isolates of the chestnut blight fungus, Cryphonectria parasitica from the Marmara and Black Sea regions of Turkey

Chestnut blight caused by the introduced fungus Cryphonectria parasitica has been responsible for the decline of Castanea sativa in Turkey since the 1960s. In this study, 72 C. parasitica isolates were recovered from the Marmara and Black Sea regions of Turkey showing white or cream-coloured culture morphology and were subjected to various tests to determine if they were infected by Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 (CHV-1). The vast majority of the isolates (69 out of 72) were vc type EU-1. Both mating types were found among a subsample of the isolates. The hypovirus was detected in 55 isolates by dsRNA extraction and/or virus specific RT-PCR on total RNA extracts. All but one isolates showed no or only weak phenol oxidase activity on agar medium containing tannic acid, typical of CHV-1 infected isolates. Through sequencing of a specific region of the hypovirus genome, we found that 24 hypovirus isolates belonged to the CHV-1 subtype I and six to the CHV-1 subtype F2. The distribution of the two CHV-1 subtypes in Turkey showed a clear geographic pattern. CHV-1 subtype I was only detected in the Marmara and western Black Sea region, whereas subtype F2 was restricted to the eastern part of the Black Sea region. The effectiveness of 23 hypovirulent isolates was tested against a virulent isolate on 2–3 years old chestnut sprouts. Ten hypovirulent isolates, all infected by CHV-1 subtype I, prevented canker development by more than 80 % suggesting that they might be suitable for biological control of chestnut blight in Turkey.

Estimations of Total Ecosystem Biomass and Carbon Storage for Fir (Abies nordmanniana S. subsp. bornmülleriana (Mattf.)) Forests (Western Black Sea Region)

With increasing CO2 in the atmosphere, there is an urgent need of reliable estimates of biomass and carbon pools, especially in Turkey where there is a serious lack of data. Information on amount of carbon biomass resulting from direct field measurements is crucial in this context, to know how forest ecosystems will affect the carbon cycle and also to validate the measurements. Biomass data were collected over the different vegetation types and land uses of pure fir forests in the Western Black Sea region in Turkey. Using site-specific allometric equation, we estimated biomass and carbon pools. We used GIS technology to develop a carbon biomass map of our study area. We estimated aboveground carbon, root carbon, and soil organic carbon down to 30 cm depth. This study will provide estimates of biomass and carbon pools from pure fir forests in the Western Black Sea region as well as an appropriate methodology to estimate based on ecosystem carbon storage components.

Root Biomass and Carbon Storage for Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmülleriana (Mattf.) Stands (Western Black Sea Region)

The forests of the world contain 80% of all aboveground carbon (C) and 40% of the entire belowground terrestrial C. It has been estimated that substantial amounts of belowground C may be released into the atmosphere this century, contributing significantly to global warming. Although root biomass constitutes an important component of total carbon storage in a forest, the difficulties in measuring it often lead to the lack of this component in estimating carbon sequestration. In forests, where below-ground C biomass is more than twice than the aboveground components, it is important to study the below-ground system of fine roots that may greatly influence C dynamics and may be a key indicator of ecosystem response to global change. The coarse root component is comprised of larger, structural roots which provide support for the above-ground portion and can account for approximately 30% of total biomass in forest ecosystem. Fine roots have also been regarded as short-lived and recognized as the most important component contributing to belowground C fluxes in forest ecosystems, accounting for up to 75% of the annual net primary production. The aim of this study is to quantify biomass and carbon storage in roots (fine, small and coarse roots) and to develop allometric equations to estimate root biomass from easily measurable tree parameters for Abies nordmanniana S. subsp. bornmulleriana (Mattf.) in western Black Sea region.

Yield models of pure fir (Abies nordmanniana S. subsp. bornmülleriana (Mattf.)) stands (Western Black Sea region).

Yield models are important tools in forest management planning because they can simulate stand development and production under various management alternatives. Yield of forest stands is determined using tables containing values of height, diameter, number of trees, volume, etc., for different site and age classes. These tables have been created by using basically mathematical equations with statistical analyses. Some species are of low economic importance, but all of them are of high ecological importance for the ecosystems. Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmulleriana Mattf. is one of the both-way important tree species in Turkey. Hence, site index curves and yield tables for natural fir stands in the Western Black Sea region were developed. Data were collected from a total of 20 sample plots and 15 sample trees. Site index curves were used to classify into site classes of I, II and III, in order of decreasing productivity. The yield models can be calibrated on Turkish Forest Management Planning Department field plot data and tested against independent long-term growth and yield records.

Modeling and forecasting river flow rate from the Melen Watershed, Turkey

Summary The Melen Watershed is located in Western Black Sea region of Turkey. Buyuk Melen and Kucuk Melen Rivers are located in this watershed. By 2010 more than 50% of Istanbul’s water demand is supplied from the Buyuk Melen River. This paper presents a new approach using an artificial neural network (ANN) technique to improve precipitation forecast performance. Missing value predictions and the future precipitation value estimations were researched throughout this study. A case study was performed in Bolu and Duzce provinces of Turkey that are located in Black Sea Region. The most crucial objective of this study was to estimate missing values and to generate quantitative forecasts for future precipitation data of Duzce. Monthly average daily precipitation data of Bolu and limited number of Duzce precipitation data were used for this purpose. Ultimately, monthly river flow rate from the Melen Watershed of Turkey was modeled and forecasted through the SWAT Model using the generated precipitation data and other required spatial and temporal data. Results show that there is a considerable relation between the simulated model and observed results. This study also shows that water supply for Istanbul can be managed based on precipitation forecast.