West-central Illinois Research Articles

Fertility, Mortality, and the Mean Age at Death: A Model of a Population under Stress

A model of a stable native population under long-term stress from diseases incurred in the wake of the expanding Western civilization is presented. The model is based on the reconstructed demography of an Eskimo-speaking population of southwestern Alaska around 1880. Statistics of the Alaskan Russian Church were used to reconstruct the mortality (16.3 deaths annually over 10 years) and fertility of a small population (319 persons) living at the Naknek River. Life expectancy was calculated at 20 years and between ages 5 and 45 there was a noticeable upswing of deaths. A large percentage of mortality was caused by recently introduced respiratory diseases (including influenza and pneumonia) and by tuberculosis which affected mainly adults. Accordingly life expectancy was corrected to 31 years after removal of the adult group. This population had been decreasing at a rate of 1.5% a year for some decades although typhus malaria smallpox and measles were absent. Respiratory diseases were probably contracted via contact with the Russian trading network starting in the late 18th century and the Naknek people lost 2/3 of their population within a century. A pattern of mortality involving respiratory diseases as a result of expanding contracts also probably affected a prehistoric west-central Illinois population dating from the Middle Woodland to Mississippian times although on a smaller scale than in the case of the Naknek people. A decrease in mean age of deaths over age 5 and an increase in mean age of deaths at age 1-9 reduced life expectancy for the Illinois indigenous people so the it resembled the fate of the Naknek population

Physical removal of contaminative inorganic material from buried human bone

Introduction of inorganic contaminants to bone during burial poses a serious problem for the interpretaion of the levels of these elements in terms of ancient diet. We have found that the problem of non-uniform contamination may be reduced or even eliminated for some elements by removal of 1–3 mm of the surface of the bone by physical abrasion. Whereas surface contamination on unabraded bone is readily visible in human femurs by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), there is no evidence for contamination according to SEM after abrasion. This process of surface removal significantly reduces the levels of Zn, Cd, K, Al, Fe and Mn, but has no effect on Na, Ca, Mg, Sr and Ba for these Woodland and Mississippian samples from west-central Illinois. The latter group of elements apparently survived burial without significant contamination. The former group of elements was contaminated by the soil environment, but at least for Zn, Cd, K and possibly Fe surface removal has returned the elemental proportions in the remainder of the bone to close to biogenic levels. Analysis of variance between subgroups after cleaning shows differences in Zn and Cu between sexes, in Ca, Mg and Sr over time, and in Na and Ba based on age at death.

Fertility in the Prehistoric Midwest: A Critique of Unifactorial Models

Cultivation of starchy seeds must be recognized as a complex of variables upon which selection operates and of which population growth is the inherent measure of success. Early weaning through the use of starchy-seed gruels, though recently proposed as the principal factor in the increase of fertility, is insufficient as a prime mover for population growth in west-central Illinois during the Middle and Late Woodland periods.

Paleodemographic Correlates of Fertility: A Reply to Corruccini, Brandon, and Handler and to Holland

Corruccini et al. apply our method of fertility estimation to a Barbados slave population, find that it yields contradictory and erratic estimates of the crude birth rate (CBR), examine its theoretical basis, and conclude that a pessimistic view of paleodemography in general is warranted. We argue that the sample utilized by Corruccini et al. is not well suited for methodological testing. Misestimates of fertility more likely were caused by the peculiarities of this particular sample than by flaws in our method or weaknesses in its theoretical foundation. Deterministic simulations also demonstrate that our method is theoretically well founded. We cannot, therefore, share Corruccini et al.'s pessimism concerning the feasibility of paleodemographic research.Holland suggests we have erred by providing a "unicausal" model for increased fertility in prehistoric west-central Illinois. He argues that a fuller multicausal model including coevolutionary effects provides a more accurate depiction of the prehistoric events contributing to increased fertility. We appreciate Holland's call for more elaborate models of prehistoric behaviors and evolutionary interactions between humans and other organisms. Unfortunately, his model is untestable because it includes a feedback loop with no exogenous variables. Because of a lack of outside input, Holland's model is immobile and cannot be used in itself to explain changes in organismal biology or behavior.

Changes in Activities with the Shift to Agriculture in the Southeastern United States

Changes in Activities with the Shift to Agriculture in the Southeastern United States

Network design factors for assessing temporal variability in ground-water quality

Benchmark major ions and nutrients data were collected biweekly for about two years at 12 wells at two sites in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer in west-central Illinois. The purpose of the study was to explore the time series properties of ground-water quality data collected at a relatively high sampling frequency. A secondary purpose was to determine the relative magnitudes of natural and sampling-related sources of variance in ground-water quality time series. The absence of this kind of information has severely hindered the design of ground-water sampling programs in the past.An autocorrelation analysis showed that the median sampling frequency for which the predicted ratio of effective independent sample size to total sample size was 0.5 (50% sampling redundancy) ranged from 6 to 14 samples per year. For a predicted ratio of effective independent sample size to total sample size of 0.9 (10% sampling redundancy) the sampling frequency ranged from 3 to 6 samples per year. This suggests that, for the wells sampled, sampling frequencies much higher than monthly can result in considerable loss of information, and may not be cost effective. Care was taken in the design of the field and laboratory sampling protocol to minimize the effects of measurement error. The data analysis confirmed that this goal was accomplished. In most cases considerably less than five percent of the total variability could be attributed to sampling and analytical error. Because of the relatively short duration of the study (42 biweekly sampling occasions at most wells) it was not possible to identify the magnitude of seasonal variations reliably.

Carnivore alteration of human bone from a late prehistoric site in Illinois.

The nature and pattern of destruction of human bone by scavenging animals, probably canids, is described for 30 Oneota skeletons from a west-central Illinois cemetery dated at ca. A.D. 1300. The most frequently damaged parts of the skeleton include bones covered by relatively little soft tissue, such as the major joints of the limbs, and those in the facial, abdominal, and gluteal regions.

Coal cleaning in a semi-continuous flow reactor: Galvanostatic studies

Coal slurries prepared in NaOH were electrolyzed in a semi-continuous flow reactor (three-electrode arrangement) under galvanostic mode at mild conditions of reaction. The influence of the current density on sulfur removal from coal, hydrogen production and energy efficiency was investigated thoroughly. A total of 66% sulfur removal from a west-central Illinois coal at a current density of 30 mA cm −2 was observed. A slight increase in the ash content presumably due to Na + addition was observed.

Deposition Analysis Based on Electric-Log Character of Cypress Sandstone (Chesterian) in Illinois: ABSTRACT

Four major deposystems were mapped in the Cypress Sandstone using SP (spontaneous potential) and resistivity log character in a statewide cross-section grid. Illinois was a shallow, gently sloping embayment subject to periodic influx of sediment and changes in sea level during Late Mississippian (Chesterian) time. Cypress log character varies predictably from the eastern margin of Illinois to the western erosional limit. Deposystem interpretations based on log character have identified (1) a deltaic zone characterized by thin sandstones interbedded with shale and siltstone in easternmost central Illinois, (2) an offshore marine zone characterized by sand bodies 50-150 ft thick, displaying blocky SP in a 20-mi wide band in east-central Illinois, (3) an offshore marine zone characterized by sandstone bodies 15-40 ft thick in central Illinois, and (4) an offshore marine zone characterized by predominantly shale log character in west-central Illinois. Presence of the shale coincident with the DuQuoin monocline suggests that Cypress deposition was influenced by structural expression of the monocline.

Migration models of prehistoric postmarital residence.

It has previously been suggested that residential practices can be inferred from within- or between-group analysis of male and female skeletal morphology. Arguments have proceeded from intuitively derived hypotheses about the genetic consequences of drift and migration. In this paper, a formal basis is presented for these hypotheses using modified versions of Wright's island model and the migration matrix method. It is shown that the usual measures of standardized genetic variance or genetic kinship can be decomposed into male, female, and male/female components. The male and female components can in turn be used separately to assess the effect of different residential practices on the population genetic structure of the two sexes. Following upon these models, nonmetric cranial trait data from prehistoric sites in west-central Illinois are used to delineate the probable residential practices for this region.

Characteristics of Winter Habitats Used by Deer in Illinois

We examined characteristics of winter habitat used by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on intensively farmed land in central and northern Illinois. Forty-three variables were measured to describe land use and human presence within 10.36-km2 blocks centered within 32 wintering sites of deer and 31 sites avoided by deer in winter. The percent of forest in refuge, total forest available, unpastured upland forest >50 years old, shrub-old field, and total upland forest available were significantly correlated (P < 0.05) with deer presence in winter; only percent of forest in refuge and total forest available had a significant influence on deer presence in winter when all 5 variables were used together in discriminant analysis. Use of the 2-variable model to classify sites where deer were located or where they were absent in winter averaged 83% correct for the 63 sites examined. Refugia and/or large blocks of forest are necessary for successive generations of deer to live long enough to develop traditions of use for specific sites in the intensively farmed, dispersed woodland ranges in the midwestern United States. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(3):552-555 The retreat of white-tailed deer into localized habitats in winter appears to be a stereotyped and evolutionary adaptive behavioral response to harsh weather and predation in northern latitudes (Mattfeld 1974, Mech 1984). South of the deep snow belt in the midwestern United States where land use has reduced forest cover to scattered wood lots or to linear strands of forest along waterways, deer congregate in winter to reduce the effects of harsh weather and to escape harassment and predation by humans. Deer come together on winter sites in late fall and remain until spring when many disperse or migrate to widely scattered summer ranges (Zwank 1974, Gladfelter 1978, Masek 1979). In northern Illinois, deer movements between widely separated summer and winter ranges have been recognized since the 1940's, prior to the beginning of modern-day deer hunting with shotguns (Pietsch 1954); however, the extent of this dispersal and migratory behavior in Illinois has only recently been documented (Nixon and Hansen 1986) and appears confined to the central and northern counties (Fig. 1). Our objectives were to determine landscape characteristics where deer are found in winter and to determine if these characteristics differ in eastcentral, westcentral, and northern Illinois. We thank D. L. Swofford, Illinois Natural History Survey, for statistical assistance and F. D. Loomis, Illinois Department of Conservation, for financial support. J. E. Chelsvig helped conduct aerial surveys. R. J. Stoll, Jr., Ohio Division of Wildlife; H. L. Gladfelter, Iowa Department of Natural Resources; and W. R. Edwards, G. C. Sanderson, and the editorial staff of the Illinois Natural History Survey reviewed the manuscript. This report is a contribution (in part) of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-87-R, the Illinois Department of Conservation, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Illinois Natural History Survey cooperating.

Distinguishing Hooded Merganser and Wood Duck Nests by Eggshell Thickness

Although eggshells of hooded mergansers (Mergus cucullatus) and wood ducks (Aix sponsa) are difficult to distinguish by color, I found that eggshell thickness (0.541 vs. 0.255 mm, respectively) provided reliable identification. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 51(3):534 Distinguishing nesting species of ducks during winter maintenance of nest houses can be difficult. The nest remains of hooded mergansers are most often confused with those of wood ducks, especially when only eggshell fragments are available. Many field technicians simply report or frequently misidentify hooded merganser eggshells. The purpose of this paper is to describe a technique to differentiate wood duck and hooded merganser eggshell fragments. I thank S. P. Havera, F. C. Bellrose, B. Bacon, L. E. Nauman, and N. F. Payne for providing comments on the manuscript. While studying wood duck nesting biology and general nest-house use, eggshell fragments were collected from 25 hooded merganser and 8 wood duck nests at Mead Wildlife Area in central Wisconsin and from 22 houses used by wood ducks at Nauvoo Slough in westcentral Illinois. Thickness of 7 eggshell fragments (1-3 mm square in size) from each nest was measured with a tubular micrometer (The Cent. Tool Co., Auburn, R.I.). Fragments from hooded merganser nests averaged 0.541 (SE = 0.0079, range = 0.467-0.630 mm, N = 175) in thickness and those from wood duck nests averaged 0.255 (SE = 0.0039, range = 0.196-0.300 mm, N = 210). No overlap in range of eggshell thickness was observed. Hence, hooded merganser vs. wood duck use can be determined by measuring th thickness of eggshell fragments remaining in nests. Differences in breeding range and site and cavity dimension requirements make use of wood duck houses by other duck species a rare occurrence. However, where common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), Barrow's goldeneye (B. islandica), or bufflehead (B. albeola) compete for nest sites, eggshell color may aid in species identification. Whereas wood duck eggs are dull white to light brown and hooded merganser eggs are pure white (eggshell fragments often stain to light brown), both goldeneyes have green eggs and those of the bufflehead are ivory yellow to olive buff. Received 18 March 1986. Accepted 7 February 1987. 1 Present address: Illinois Natural History Survey, River Research Laboratory, Box 599, Havana, IL 62644.

Preliminaly Evaluation of the SIR-B Response to Soil Moisture, Surface Roughness, and Crop Canopy Cover

stract-Two pre-dawn ascending data-akes (dt. 49.2 and 97.2) by the Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-B) are used to evaluate the effects of soil moisture, surface roughness, and crop canopy cover on radar backscattering. The two images are separated in acquisition date by three days and were obtained at the same local angle of incidence (θ <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">1</sub> = 30°) but with opposite azimuth viewing directions (Δα = 180°). The digitally recorded and processed SIR-B imagery is externallyi-calibrated with respect to the radar backscattering coefficient σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> via response to arrays of point and area-extended targets of known radar cross section. Extensive ancillary data pertaining to scene physical and biophysical al conditions were collected from approximately 400 agricultural fields within a 20 km × 20 km test site in west-central Illinois. The test site was largely agricultural and consisted primarily of corn and soybeans at harvest-ready conditions. For the agricultural portions of the scene, σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">SIR-B</sub> is found to vary over a 16-to 20-dB dynamic range for a given observation date. The magnitude of σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">SIR-B</sub> is found to be proportional to soil moisture, surface roughness, and canopy biomass. Although the SIR-B sensor parameters es ( L-band, HH polarization, θnd 0 ° 300) were not expected to be optimum for estimation of near-surface soil moisture, significant linear correlations are observed between σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">SIR-B</sub> (in decibels) and 0-5-cm volumetric moisture m <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">v. For a given target class as broadly defined by surface roughness and canopy cover, linear regression of σ⁰_SIR-B (dB) to m&#x01d52f; generally yields correlation coefficients of &#x01d52f;² ≃ 0.8.</sub>

External Calibration of SIR-B Imagery with Area-Extended and Point Targets

Data takes on two ascending orbits of the Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) over an agricultural test site in west-central Illinois were used to establish end-to-end transfer functions for conversion of the digital numbers on the 8-bit image to values of the radar backscattering coefficient σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> (m <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> /m <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> ) in dB. The transfer function for each data take was defined by the SIR-B response to an array of six calibrated point targets of known radar cross section (transponders) and to a large number of area-extended targets also with known radar cross section as measured by externally calibrated, truck-mounted scatterometers. The radar cross section of each transponder at the SIR-B center frequency was measured on an antenna range as a function of the local angle of incidence. Two truck-mounted scatterometers observed 20-80 agricultural fields daily at 1.6 GHz with HH-polarization and at azimuth viewing angles and incidence angles equivalent to those of the SIR-B. The form of the transfer function is completely defined by the SIR-B receiver and the incoherent averaging procedure incorporated into production of the standard SIR-B image product. Assuming that the processing properly accounts for the antenna gain, all transfer function coefficients are known except for the thermal noise power and a system " constant" that has been shown to vary as a function of uncommanded changes in the effective SIR-B transmit power.

Fertility and the Development of Agriculture in the Prehistoric Midwest

In this article we develop and apply a method for estimating fertility in paleodemographic study. The proportion D30+/D5+, generated from standard life table calculations, is used to estimate relative fertility rates for eight Woodland and Mississippian populations represented by skeletal series from west-central Illinois. The inferred pattern of fertility increase through time is then considered in the context of key variables that define diet, technology, and sedentism. We conclude that changes in diet or food preparation techniques are implicated in this demographic change. The absence of a significant increment in juvenile mortality in association with the elevated fertility rates suggests that these changes in fertility explain the regional population increase previously inferred from mortuary and habitation site densities.

Woodland Social Change in the Central Midwest: A Review and Evaluation of Interpretive Trends

The analysis of Middle Woodland to Late Woodland social change in west-central Illinois has produced contrasting interpretations of decreasing and increasing complexity. This paper evaluates both views, showing that available evidence is most consistent with the interpretation of social collapse at the Middle to Late Woodland transition.

Subsurface Horizon Blending: An Alternative Strategy to B Horizon Replacement for the Construction of Post‐Mine Soils

AbstractThis study was initiated to evaluate various combinations of substratum and B horizon materials, as subsurface rooting media. Materials were collected from each solum and substratum horizon to a depth of about 6 m at two surface mine sites. One of the sites was in southern Illinois and had an infertile Darmstadt (Albic Natraqualf) surface soil with a strongly acid (pH 5.2) and natric subsoil. The other was in west central Illinois and had a Sable (Typic Haplaquoll) surface soil which supports high yielding grain crops with proper management.The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse using large plant containers. The test crop, soybean, was germinated in A horizon material, or in a blend of materials containing A horizon, placed over the given surface rooting medium. This procedure was employed in order to simulate field conditions where seeds germinate in topsoil and root into the underlying material. Performance of the test crop was best where A horizon was segregated and replaced over a blend of the next 3 m of material for treatments made from the Darmstadt materials from southern Illinois. It was poorest where A horizon material was replaced over material from the Darmstadt B2 horizon. The other treatments were intermediate in performance between the A/Top 3 m and the A/B2 (subsoil). A similar trend was found with the Sable materials from west central Illinois, but the difference between the best performing treatment, A/Top 3 m, and the poorest, A/B2 (subsoil), was not as marked.

Electrical Resistivity and Soil Studies at Orendorf Archaeological Site, Illinois: a Case Study

An electrical resistivity survey and accompanying soil analyses were performed over an exposed but unexcavated prehistoric house in Peoria loess in westcentral Illinois. Positive resistivity anomalies occur along the trenches for the house walls and within the house and distinctive patterns in contoured resistivity data occur over the house.Soil analyses show that quartz, kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, and hematite are the main mineral constituents in the soil. Within the house basin, the soil is dark gray in color because of the presence of organic carbon. Prominent positive electrical resistivity anomalies occur where the dark soil is thickest.Analyses of the resistivity and soil data enable the identification of several anthropogenic features within the house and suggest that electrical resistivity data would be helpful to archaeologists in doing both detailed and reconnaissance work. For example, the mean amplitude and fabric patterns in contoured resistivity are distinctive over the house relative to areas outside the house. This fact suggests that similar analyses of reconnaissance resistivity data might be helpful in exploration for large archaeologic activity areas such as whole villages or camps. Also, detailed analyses of the resistivity and soil data, in conjunction with information already available from other excavated structures at Orendorf village, suggest that the electrical resistivity technique can serve as a valuable, but ancillary, tool to help archaeologists focus their efforts and decide which of the many structures in a village should be excavated.

Colmar-Plymouth Conundrum: ABSTRACT

End_Page 1286------------------------------The Colmar-Plymouth oil field is the only significant field found so far in the northwesternmost Illinois basin. Since its discovery in 1914, it has produced more than 5 million bbl, and still produced almost 28,000 bbl in 1977. Intermittent, but persistent search for additional production since 1914, has been largely unsuccessful. Why have no other significant discoveries been made? Does reexamination of the region considering current concepts and conditions hold any hope for additional hydrocarbon production? The reservoir at Colmar-Plymouth is the Hoing Sandstone, an isolated lens of well sorted, mature, Devonian shoreline sand. The shoreline borders the northern flank of the contemporaneous Sangamon arch. Oil in the field apparently originated in shale of the Upper Ordovician Maquoketa Group, which is exposed on the pre-Devonian unconformity beneath the reservoir. The field also lies almost on the crest of one of a series of broad northwest-trending structural noses crossing the arch. Consideration of these conditions provides our only geologic key to the Colmar-Plymouth conundrum. One legacy of the dismal and largely unguided exploration history of the past 70 years in west-central Illinois, is the accumulation of a large mass of sociologically interesting data of unpredictable scientific value. Perceptive analysis and interpretation of these data might well lead to additional discoveries and have a certain entertainment value in its own right. The shallow depth at which oil occurs in the area, the demonstrated longevity of production, and current market conditions, encourage exploration. End_of_Article - Last_Page 1287------------

Some Aspects of the Ecology of the Eastern Garter Snake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis) in a Semi-Disturbed Habitat in West-Central Illinois

Certain aspects of the ecology of a population of Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis including population density, selection of cover objects, and sexual dimorphism and geographic variation in tail length proportions were studied on the campus of Western Illinois University in McDonough County, Illinois. The habitat of this area can be classified as semi-disturbed due to its heavy use by the university and students. Despite this degree of disturbance, a relatively successful population of garter snakes seems to exist based on population density estimates. Garter snakes showed a high association for cover objects, which may have been used for thermoregulation during warm and cool periods. Sexual dimorphism in tail length proportions (tail length/total length ratios) is present in this subspecies as reported previously in the literature. Geographic variation in tail length proportions exists for both males and females with three midwest and western races (T. s. parietalis, T. s. pickeringi, and T. s. concinnus) previously studied having longer tail length/total length mean ratios than T. s. sirtalis inhabiting west-central Illinois. One of these (T. s. concinnus) had a statistically highly significant difference in ratios from T. s. sirtalis for both males and females.