West Carpathians Research Articles

Declining Radial Growth in Major Western Carpathian Tree Species: Insights from Three Decades of Temperate Forest Monitoring.

This study investigates the radial growth response of five key European forest tree species, i.e., Fagus sylvatica, Picea abies, Abies alba, Quercus petraea, and Pinus sylvestris, to dry years in the West Carpathians, Slovakia. Utilizing data from ICP Forests Level I plots, we identified species-specific growth declines, particularly in Pinus sylvestris and Fagus sylvatica, with milder radial growth declines for Quercus petraea and Picea abies. Abies alba exhibited a growth peak in the mid-2000s, followed by a decline in the end of the observed period. Elevation emerged as the only significant environmental predictor, explaining 3.5% of growth variability during dry periods, suggesting a potential mitigating effect. The scope of this study was limited by the complex interplay of ecological factors that influence tree growth, which vary across the ICP Forests Level I monitoring sites. Nonetheless, our findings enhance the understanding of species-specific growth responses and offer insights for the climate-smart management of temperate forests under changing conditions.

Different accumulation of some elements in the fry and adults of alpine bullheads (Cottus poecilopus).

Skulls of alpine bullhead sampled from the Javorinka stream in the Tatra Mountains, West Carpathians, were analyzed to determine concentrations of S, Cl, K, Ca, P, Rb, Zn, Mn, Mb, Fe, Ti, Sn, Co, Ni, Cu, As, Se, Pb, Sb, Ba, Hg, Cr, Ag, and Cd. The stage of development is the most influential factor determining element concentrations in the sampled bullhead, as fry were more polluted than adult fish. The different diets consumed by fry and adult bullhead plays a key role in the accumulation of chemical elements in their bodies. Young bullheads live in small natural embankments containing higher levels of a mixture of sedimentary minerals and microorganisms than in running water. Thus, newly hatched bullheads may serve as excellent indicators of water quality in mountain creeks or streams, as they can indicate the higher pollution of water or prey in their habitats (small bays with sandy bottoms) when compared to the preferred habitat of adult individuals.

Luminescence and radiocarbon dates from alluvial sediments, Podhale, Central Europe — A methods comparison

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and radiocarbon (14C) techniques were employed to investigate the absolute ages of alluvial sediments in Podhale in the West Carpathians, southern Poland. This is an approach to (i) testing the credibility of the above dating methods by their reciprocal age control and (ii) further implications to regional geochronology and to dating campaigns of alluvial sequences elsewhere. Nine geological sections comprised of mineral and organic material were selected for the study. Our age determinations range from 26.9 to 2.27 ka, and are in good geochronological order. OSL age estimates show good agreement with independent ages from radiocarbon dating. However, in three alluvial successions the discrepancy between the resulting ages is considerable. We attribute the difference to the partial bleaching, and organic material redeposition. We also report on an age reversal of sediments in a single geological section. This might have been resulted from the alluviation-erosion scheme of meandering rivers over a millennial time-scale, i.e. the dominance of channel migration, point bar deposition (lateral accretion), and crosswise erosion. Finally, new geochronological data are provided abolishing sediment age assumptions based on uncertain chronostratigraphical approaches.

Factors Affecting the Rates and Modes of Landslide Colluvium Removal in River Channels of Podhale (Western Carpathians)

This paper presented some hydrological factors affecting the course and rate of fluvial erosion of landslide colluvium at its contact with river flow. Volumes of colluvium eroded by rivers in the period 2013–2019 were measured at Podhale (a part of Polish West Carpathians) on four landslides representing various geological settings. At each landslide, changes in shape and position of the contact zone between colluvium and river water were registered after episodes of high river stage. The obtained data on changes in relief of the landslide fronts and adjacent river channels were used to calculate volumes of colluvium removed during each episode. The course of erosion and volumes of colluvium eroded were compared with the water stage records for the studied period of time. Intensity of colluvium erosion was found to be strongly dependent on the water levels and cohesion of colluvium. Volumes of removed colluvium were the greatest during short-lived (1–2 days) and prolonged (7–10 days) periods of high river stages. The rate of erosional removal was the highest for colluvium consisting of poorly consolidated Quaternary matrix-supported massive gravel and overlying fine deposits stored within river terraces. Colluvium composed of Neogene mudstones and sandstones was removed at a lower rate and the rate of removal was lowest for large blocks and slices composed of solid layers of alternating sandstone and shales belonging to the Podhale Flysch series. Erosion of the landslide toes was more intense at those sites where the river flow approached the landslide front at a wider angle.

Do the natural dynamics of West Carpathian forests affect the diversity of epiphytic lichens on Norway spruce?

Over the last decades the West Carpathian spruce and mixed forests with a share of Picea abies, have been undergoing intensified dynamic changes, determined by windstorms and European spruce bark beetle outbreaks. Those changes should have a decisive effect on the survivability of species and shifts in epiphytic lichen communities on this phorophyte. Research conducted in the Gorce Mts (West Carpathians, Poland) in 1993, 2013 and 2018, on the same 186 spruce trees at 33 sites, revealed an increase in the species diversity of lichen communities in a long-term perspective (25 years). At the same time, there was a decrease in the coverage of the dominant species. Such changes are a result of long-term tree composition processes: the natural thinning of upper mountain spruce forests and the increase of lower mountain forests density after a decrease in the share of Norway spruce. The former prefers photophilous epiphytes, and the latter leads to an increase in the share of shade-tolerant species. The analysis of lichen communities by means of the principal components analysis (PCA) method for all three study periods combined showed that long-term changes were the most significant for this lichen biota, and short-term changes had no considerable effect. The conducted Redundancy Analysis (RDA) revealed, that the forest plant association was a stronger factor affecting the lichen community composition and coverage than tree stand density and saplings density in each observation term. The changes taking place in stands under bark beetle and wind disturbances should be treated differently in different types of forest associations, but in both, they cause differentiation of niches used by more specialized species of epiphytic lichens.

Impact of Historical Agrarian Landforms on Soil Water Content Variability at Local Scale in West Carpathian Region, Slovakia

The historical agrarian landforms (AL) represent man-made features that alter the hydrological process on cultivated hillslopes. Soil water content (SWC) and its spatial and temporal variability represent an important state indicator for understanding of these processes. In order to assess the differences between individual AL in terms of SWC stability, continuous soil moisture measurements at five different monitoring localities characterized by a specific combination of AL and environmental factors were performed. Temporal SWC stability was evaluated using mean relative difference (MRD) and its standard deviation (SDRD). Differences in mean SWC and MRD values demonstrated the difference between saturated inner part of the AL and external parts such as terraced slopes and mounds, soil depths, and slope positions. In order to analyze the relationship between SWC and environmental variables, the methods of constrained ordination were applied. The most influential factors that regulate SWC variability during the periods of rain were identified as: stone content, sand fraction content, slope orientation, type of agrarian landform, and its orientation against the contour lines. Results also pointed to the fact that different factors predominate among individual localities and, therefore, SWC variability reflects the effect of combination of various environmental factors rather than effect of single parameter. Besides the improved understanding of SWC variability, our results also highlight the importance of AL in regulating the hydrological processes at historical agricultural landscape of the West Carpathian region.

Soil Compaction after Increasing the Number of Wheeled Tractors Passes on Forest Soils in West Carpathians

Soil disturbance and compaction are inherent in ground-based harvesting operations. These changes are affected by numerous factors, related mainly to the technical parameters of the machines, soil conditions, and the technology used. This study aimed to analyze the changes of surface layers of soil caused by skidder traffic without loads on the Cambisols of Western Carpathians. We observed changes in the soil bulk density and penetration resistance. The results showed that only machine traffic caused a 0.32 to 0.35 (g cm−3) increase in soil bulk density. Besides machine traffic, bulk density was affected by soil moisture content. Penetration resistance of soil increased by 0.15 to 1.04 (MPa) after traffic of 40 machines. Penetration resistance showed a lower increase after traffic, and regression and correlation analysis proved a relationship between penetration resistance, skeleton content, and penetration depth, besides the number of machine passes (r = 0.33–0.55). Observing the changes in the physical properties of soils caused by machine traffic allows for a more detailed view of the effects of forest harvesting machinery on forest soils.

Identification of the factors determining the concentration and spatial distribution of Zn, Pb and Cd in the soils of the non-forest Tatra Mountains (southern Poland)

We investigated trace-metal (TM)––Zn, Pb and Cd––concentrations and spatial distributions in the uppermost layers of non-forest soils from Tatra National Park (West Carpathians). We aimed to determine the main factors affecting the distribution of TMs, as well as the risk they posed to the environment. TM concentrations were compared to the target and intervention values established by the Dutch Ministry. Principle component analysis was used to identify the potential factors affecting TM accumulation, with two-factor analysis being applied to further examine the importance of any given factor. To examine the regularity of the TM distribution, semivariograms were created. The semivariograms of Cd and Pb were similar, suggesting a moderate spatial dependence for these metal concentrations, while the Zn variogram indicated a lack of spatial continuity for this metal. We established that the Zn, Pb and Cd exceeded target levels and at some sites, Cd exceeded the intervention values, posing a strong ecological risk to the environment. Our study confirmed that the parent rock was the most important factor affecting the TM accumulation. The carbonate-free soils differed from carbonate soils in the second important factor affecting TM accumulation, for carbonate-free soils it was location when for carbonate soils–TM content in the parent material. The Zn, Pb and Cd distribution patterns indicated that Cd, but also to a lesser degree Pb and Zn, accumulation mainly resulted from long-range transport from industrialised areas, while the Zn concentrations were also affected by local sources, such as the historical mining of Zn ore.

Storage Vessels in the Late Roman and Early Migration Period in the Polish West Carpathians. Economic Aspect

Storage Vessels in the Late Roman and Early Migration Period in the Polish West Carpathians. Economic Aspect

Can the invasive ambrosia beetle Xylosandrus germanus withstand an unusually cold winter in the West Carpathian forest in Central Europe?

Abstract The capability of a non-native species to withstand adverse weather is indicative of its establishment in a novel area. An unusually cold winter of 2016/2017 that occurred in the West Carpathians of Slovakia and other regions within Europe provided an opportunity to indirectly assess survival of the invasive ambrosia beetle Xylosandrus germanus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae). We compared trap captures of this species in the year preceding and succeeding the respective cold winter. Ethanol-baited traps were deployed in 24 oak dominated forest stands within the southern and central area from April to August 2016, and again from April to August 2017 to encompass the seasonal flight activity of X. germanus and to get acquainted with temporal changes in the abundance of this species in these two distant areas. Dispersing X. germanus were recorded in all surveyed stands before and after the aforementioned cold winter. Their total seasonal trap captures were lower in the southern area following low winter temperatures, but remained similar in the central area. Our results suggest that X. germanus can withstand adverse winter weather in oak dominated forests of the West Carpathians within altitudes of 171 and 450 m asl. It is likely that minimum winter temperatures will not reduce the establishment or further spread of this successful invader in forests in Central Europe.

The influence of preferred habitat and daily range of the European hare on its contamination by heavy metals: a case study from the West Carpathians.

The Spišská Magura mountain range, located in the Middle Spiš, is one of the regions in Slovakia most contaminated by heavy metals resulting from mining and smelting activities. Heavy metals and other potentially toxic elements have accumulated in mountain areas via atmospheric transport. The influence of the daily range size of the European hare on its contamination by heavy metals was investigated in three habitat types (forest, woodland edge, meadow) in the Spišská Magura mountain range in the West Carpathians. Individual hares (n = 21) were traced and located by GPS following snowfall. Pair samples of their faeces (n = 64) and food (n = 64) were collected from feeding sites. The maps created were used for determination of the size of the daily range as being small or large. All hares that have a small daily range avoid meadows and open spaces due to the higher predation risk. However, individuals with a large daily range feed in all habitats, including meadows. Hares with a small daily range in a forest habitat ingested higher amounts of bio-elements Ca, Cr, S, and Mn as well as higher amounts of heavy metals Ba and Pb than hares with a large daily range. Moreover, dominant hares with a small daily range, with access to abundant food sources in a forest habitat, may gradually take on higher levels of bio-elements including heavy metals that are present in their food source. In contrast, in the woodland edge, hares with a small daily range had a smaller concentration of Ca, Cr, Mn, S, Ba, and Pb compared to hares with a large daily range. Caecotrophy plays a very significant role as far as the intake of nutrients and other elements is concerned. We found significant dependence between concentrations of the elements Cr, S, Ba, Pb, and Cd in the food of European hares and in their faeces.

Temporal and seasonal changes in mercury accumulation in Tatra chamois from West Carpathians.

The main aim of this study was to determine the concentration of total mercury (T-Hg) in different tissues, hair, and faeces from a long-lived animal that actively lives in the subalpine and alpine zone within temperate climate zone throughout the year. Levels of T-Hg in samples from naturally deceased Tatra chamois (n = 72) from the Tatra Mountains (Slovakia) were determined using direct mercury analyses on the basis of dry weight. The mercury concentrations in hair samples were compared over the last three decades. Seasonal changes in mercury concentration and differences in the amounts of mercury in various tissues, hairs, and faeces between age and sex groups were also studied. The highest mercury concentrations in organs were found in the kidneys of Tatra chamois, with mean values of 0.45 ± 0.07 μg/g (dry weight) for adults (n = 18) and 0.39 ± 0.12 μg/g (dry weight) for juveniles (n = 6). These values are considerably high compared to expected Hg levels in wild ungulates from foothill and mountain areas in the temperate zone. Juveniles had higher levels of T-Hg in their muscles (0.011 ± 0.001 μg/g dry weight, n = 10) and faeces (0.189 ± 0.025 μg/g dry weight, n = 7) when compared to adults that had 0.007 ± 0.001 μg/g dry weight of T-Hg in muscles (n = 29) and 0.113 ± 0.015 μg/g dry of T-Hg weight in faeces (n = 19). T-Hg concentrations in individual tissues (heart, kidney, liver, lungs, spleen, tongue, muscle, bone), hairs, and faeces were not significantly different between males and females. Mercury levels in the hair of Tatra chamois have increased significantly since the 1990s (median value of T-Hg: 0.025 μg/g dry weight) with the highest values presenting during the 2000s (0.029 μg/g dry weight). Since 2010 (0.016 μg/g dry weight), levels have declined when compared to those observed during the 1990s and 2000s. Therefore, we can conclude that T-Hg deposition in alpine areas of the Tatra Mountains shows a declining trend since the 2010s. T-Hg concentrations in the heart, muscle, and hair were higher in summer compared to winter. Seasonal changes in mercury concentrations are likely most related to the seasonal availability of food, but may also be related to moulting periods, and this correlation must be explored further.

Survival Strategies and Seasonal Size Variations of Feather Mites Proctophyllodes megaphyllus on their Host Alpine Accentor Prunella collaris

Compared to chewing lice, symbiotic and studies on their biology, ecology and survival strategies are still rare. To describe the ecology and morphology of the mite species Proctophyllodes megaphyllus, a symbiont of the alpine accentor Prunella collaris, 150 accentors were captured in the West Carpathian Mountains of Slovakia. The mites extracted from the birds were sexed and their specific body structures were measured. In total 2144 individuals of P. megaphyllus were collected from 100 accentors. Male mites collected in autumn, after the bird's postnuptial moult, reached the largest size. At the same time, mite prevalence reached maximum while the mean intensity of infestation was at its lowest. Our results suggest that mites preferred newly coated feathers after a moult and radiated horizontally, infesting birds at shared roosting sites where alpine accentors tend to reoccur. This study is one of the few evaluations of seasonal variation in ecology and morphology of feather mites in alpine conditions.

Seed germination behaviour of the narrow endemic Daphne arbuscula (Thymelaeaceae) compared to the more widespread Daphne cneorum

Diminished reproduction success in species with narrow distribution ranges might be one of the factors responsible for their limited dispersal and colonization abilities. We investigated here various aspects of the seed biology of the West Carpathian endemic Daphne arbuscula (Thymelaeaceae) and compared it with its more widespread relative D. cneorum. In both species, we investigated (i) differences in seed viability and germination ability; (ii) differences between the two observed fruit morphotype groups, and (iii) the effect of cold stratification in breaking seed dormancy and enhance germination in stored seeds. To determine seed viability, a tetrazolium test and an imbibed cut test were performed. Several seed germination tests with gibberellic acid and with a sequence of cold and warm stratification, using different temperatures and durations, were carried out. We uncovered that (i) D. arbuscula seeds show significantly lower viability than D. cneorum seeds, but this difference is due to the smaller-fruit morphotype; (ii) seed quality and viability of the big-fruit morphotype are significantly greater than the smaller-fruit morphotype in both species, although the seed viability of the latter is not null and the dormancy level seems to differ between them; (iii) a warm stratification at 15°C for 13 weeks, followed by cold stratification at either 0 or 5°C for 28 weeks, followed by 4 weeks at 15°C, break physiological dormancy and allow the majority of seeds of D. arbuscula (63%) to germinate. We recommend including both fruit morphotypes when collecting seed of Daphne for ex situ conservation and reintroduction initiatives, to maintain the original genetic diversity of the species.

The Impact of Historical Agricultural Landuse on Selected Site Conditions in the Traditional Landscape of the West Carpathians

Abstract This article is focused on the site conditions of the cultural mountainous West Carpathian landscape (Liptovská Teplička village, Central Slovakia) affected by historical agricultural land use, which also included relief and soil modifications leading to the formation of specific mosaic of agrarian landforms – AL (narrow productive plots separated by balks having character of terraces and mounds). It is based on a pair comparison of sites located side by side; the former is located on the productive plot (former arable land), while the latter is a balk. The pairs were selected in order to capture the representative sample of AL within diverse natural conditions, land cover and management. In order to assess the differences between individual AL, continuous soil water content (SWC) measurements using EC-5 soil moisture sensors were performed. The sensors provided continuous measurements of hourly soil volumetric water content rates (VWC, m3/m3). The data were recorded from April 2018 until December 2018. These data were used to assess individual monitoring localities in terms of SWC temporal stability. Furthermore, at each sampling location, an analysis of soil organic matter content, soil texture and stone content was performed. This research was also supplemented by indirect estimation of some site conditions based on phytoindication method using Ellenberg’s indicator values for moisture, soil reaction, nutrient content, continentality, temperature and light. Our results can be concluded as follows: i) the SWC temporal stability assessment revealed the clear effect of AL, however, it was difficult to identify which factors associated with AL typology were the most significant. The high differences between similar AL types revealed the fact that land use, management and rock content (both at productive plots and balks) affect the SWC temporal stability rather than AL typology and their orientation within the slope, ii) phytoindication method did not show statistically significant differences in site conditions between productive plots and balks, despite the fact that there were some significant differences confirmed in species composition, especially between productive plots and dolomite mounds. These differences are related to a higher number of calciphilous and termophilous species preferring ecotones and forests in mounds and group of mesophilous meadow species in productive plots. In summary, it seems that identified differences in both SWC temporal stability and floristic composition between productive plots and balks reflect the management regime rather than site conditions and formation of mounds represents relatively the most significant impact of traditional agricultural land use on the local environment.

Hydrogeochemistry and Related Processes Controlling the Formation of the Chemical Composition of Thermal Water in Podhale Trough, Poland

The most promising Polish region in terms of its geothermal resource potential is the Podhale Trough in the Inner West Carpathians, where the thermal water occurs in the Eocene-Mesozoic strata. The origin and conditions of formation of the chemical composition of the thermal water are different in a regional scale due to the impact of infiltrating water on the chemical compounds present in nearby thermal intakes, chemical processes responsible for the concentration of major elements and residence time. The article presents the regional conceptual model in regard to the factors controlling the chemistry of thermal water from Podhale Trough and the conditions of its exchange. It was allowed by performing the hydrogeochemical characteristics of studied water and analyzing its changes according to flow direction from HCO3-Ca-Mg type to SO4-Cl-Na-Ca and SO4-Ca-Mg types. The hydrogeochemical modelling was also made allowing identification of the impact of reservoir rocks on the formation of the chemical composition. For confirmation of the theories formulated and for more accurate interpretation of the results obtained from hydrogeochemical modelling, hydrochemical indices were calculated, i.e., rHCO3−/rCl−, rNa+/rCl−, rCa2+/rMg2+, rCa2+/(rCa2+ + rSO42−) and rNa+/(rNa+ + rCl−). The results revealed the most important processes evolving the chemistry of thermal water are progressive freshening of the thermal water reservoir, which in the past was filled with salty water, dissolution of gypsum, and ongoing dolomitization. Conducted research presents the important factors that in the case of increased exploitation of thermal water in the Podhale Trough, may influence the quality of thermal water in terms of its physical and chemical parameters.

Recharge, élévation retardée du niveau des eaux souterraines et rendement spécifique au sein de l’aquifère karstique du Trias de la montagne Kopa, dans les Carpates occidentales, Slovaquie

Notable delay of more than 1 year (12.5–15.9 months) between precipitation recharge and groundwater-level upturn was recorded in the Triassic karstic aquifer of the Kopa Mt. (1,187 m asl) in the middle of the West Carpathians in Slovakia. The velocity of recharge transit (0.24–0.70 m/day) was affirmed by borehole hydrographs. The groundwater level here is deep (113–300 m below ground surface) but approximately evenly distributed at the same elevation (~467 ± 10 m asl). Dolomites extend over 78% of the surface area of the karstic reservoir, with a Cretaceous marly aquitard boundary on the perimeter and on its base. The whole area is recharged merely by precipitation and entirely discharged by springs and small surface streams. The water balance between recharged and discharged water, and the groundwater-level fluctuation (shift in time), enabled calculation of stored groundwater volumes. The estimated specific yield of the Triassic dolomitic aquifer was unusually high (7.6–23.4%, mean 16.1%). Karstic cavities were also widely found in the borehole logs of nine boreholes that were 87–490-m deep and drilled in Triassic dolomites and limestones along the axis of a planned highway tunnel. Groundwater level monitoring took place over 40 months, between June 2014 and October 2017. Typical seasonal water-level oscillations were absent in the karstic reservoir, but water-level change was relevant to delayed past recharge events. In a borehole situated in the Cretaceous marly aquitard, good seasonal correlation with effective precipitation and also tidal response was observed.

Hydrochemical Types of Spring Waters in West Carpathian Catchments (Poland) under Different Pressure of Acidic Deposition

Springs are natural outflows of groundwater to the surface and are often the only places to gain insights into underground processes, especially in protected areas. Contact with rocks changes the parameters of water, especially its chemical composition, which can be easily expressed via hydrochemical typing using the Szczukariew–Priklonski classification. Knowledge of the distribution and chemical compositions of springs is essential for a good hydrological and hydrogeological understanding of a given area. In previous decades, underground water remained mostly uncontaminated, and the ions used in the Szczukariew–Priklonski classification, namely, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl−, SO42− and HCO3−, provided accurate descriptions of this water. However, due to anthropogenic activity in the last decades, NO3− and NH4+ ions in shares greater than 20% have been frequently noted in underground and spring water. Research has been conducted in two forested regions: within the Skrzyczne range, which is under pressure from high air pollution coming from the Ostrava and Upper Silesia industrial districts, and in Gorce National Park, which is impacted by low-level air pollution. Water samples were collected three times per year in 2011 and 2012 at various water levels after a spring snow thaw, a period of heavy rain and a dry period. A search for the following ions was conducted: Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, NH4+, HCO3−, SO42−, Cl− and NO3−. Under the Szczukariew–Priklonski classification system, due to the continuous accumulation of nitrogen compounds from air pollution, the shares of nitrates and ammonium ions in underground water and spring water are likely to increase.

Dynamics of ectomycorrhizal mycobiota (Basidiomycota) communities on a former agricultural land (West Carpathians)

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM) are very important in fundamental forest ecosystems. They play a very important role in the succession process, e.g., afforestation of former agricultural areas. Species richness and relative abundance of ECM macromycetes fruiting bodies were determined in spruce monocultures of different ages. Fifty-one ECM species were found; the most dominant were Ramaria formosa, Hygrophorus pustulatus, Lactarius aurantiacus, L. rufus, Paxillus involutus, and others. The highest average abundance was found in a 21-year-old forest stand; the highest number of species was found in a 51-year-old stand. Average monthly temperature (p < 0.001), precipitation (p < 0.01), and soil carbon content (p < 0.05) had the most significant impact on the dynamics of species richness and abundance. The highest values of abundance and species richness were noted in summer 2016 and autumn 2017 and 2018. The highest values of mycorrhizal percentage were recorded in 21-year-old forest stands (41.95%), and the lowest values were recorded in 51-year-old stands (35.86%). Shannon index values (H´) indicate a slightly lower species diversity of ECM fungi in young stands (1.65) compared with older stands (1.71). The values of species richness and fruiting bodies abundance were statistically strongly significant (p < 0.001) during seasonality (month) and through the interaction (month/year). Amanita muscaria, Chalciporus piperatus, Russula aeruginea, and Suillus grevillei were found as indication species in the youngest stands. Amanita rubescens, Imleria badia, Inocybe lacera, and Tricholoma equestre were found as indication species in the oldest stands.

The relationship between epixylic bryophyte communities and microclimate

AbstractAimDead wood‐inhabiting bryophyte communities are formed by several important factors. Besides the amount, quality and continuity of the substrate, there are also external factors indirectly influencing their structure. One of the most important is local microclimate. This fact has been recognized by many previous authors, yet studies exploring the direct effect of the microclimate on epixylic bryophytes are still sparse. Based on directly measured values of local temperature, air humidity and canopy openness (CO), we explored the associations between microclimate and epixylic bryophyte communities.LocationOld‐growth mixed Fagus sylvatica‐Abies alba montane forest in the Czech Republic (West Carpathians).MethodsThe associations between microclimate and bryophyte communities were studied on 61 large logs of Abies alba in advanced decay stage. Air temperature and humidity were measured in three periods of the year 2017, CO was measured in leafless and leaf‐on periods. Water potential (Ψ) values were calculated from the data. The importance of the seasons was compared, the effect of microclimate variables on the species composition of logs was explored by canonical correspondence analysis. The effect on total cover and species richness was analyzed by linear models.ResultsOur analysis revealed a clear relationship between the communities and the microclimatic gradient. The most important factors for bryophyte composition were the spring and summer water potential and CO in the leaf‐on period. Total species richness and cover increased with increasing water potential (relatively cool and humid conditions). Also, the appearance of sensitive epixylic specialists (mainly liverworts) was positively correlated with these microclimatic conditions. On the other hand, species more tolerant to desiccation preferred logs with a drier and warmer microclimate.ConclusionsComparing logs with similar physical properties but different microclimates, we confirmed that epixylic bryophyte communities are significantly associated to microclimatic conditions in natural temperate forest.