West Anatolia Research Articles

Traditional Tar Production from the Anatolian Black Pine [Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe var. pallasiana] and its usages in Afyonkarahisar, Central Western Turkey

BackgroundTar is one example of a plant product used in folk medicine and it is obtained from Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe, which is very common in the West Anatolian Region. Old trees that are good for kindling and have thick trucks are preferred to obtain tar. Tar is used not only as traditional medicine but also for protection against both endoparasites and ectoparasites. The objective of this study was to record the traditional method of obtaining tar and its usages in Afyonkarahisar which is located in the Western Anatolian Region of Turkey.MethodsIn order to record the traditional methods of obtaining tar, we visited the villages of Doğlat, Kürtyurdu and Çatağıl in Afyonkarahisar (Turkey) June-July, 2012. Ethnobotanical data about the method of collection and traditional usages of tar were obtained through informal interviews with 26 participants (16 men and 10 women). Data concerning the method of tar collection and its traditional usages were recorded and photographed.ResultsThe traditional method for obtaining tar from Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana by local people was recorded and the local usages (curing ear pain in children, osteomyelitis, wounds, ulcers, eczema, acne, alopecia, fungus, foot-and-mouth disease in animals, mouth sores in sheep and goats, protection against endo- and ectoparasites, repellent for snakes, mice, flies (Tabanus bovinus) and ticks, and the prevention of water leakage from roofs) of tar are described.ConclusionIn this study, the traditional method for obtaining tar and the traditional usages of tar are explained. Documentation of the method of obtaining tar and its traditional usages may contribute to scientific research on the benefits and usages of tar in medicine, veterinary medicine, as well as other fields.

Determination of Traffic Originated Cadmium (Cd +2) Pollution on The Forests on Transition Zone of The Middle-West Anatolia

In this study, needles and bark of the Anatolian Black Pine (Pinus nigra ssp. pallasiana) were used as a bioindicator to determine the traffic originated heavy metal (cadmium) pollution on the forests beside the main roads at the Middle West Anatolia gate zone. Twenty four sampling areas were chosen on the roads which are connecting provinces and towns of Eskisehir to each other. At the end of the studies, it was determined meaningful positive relationship between traffic density and amount of Cd+2 determined on the soil, the forest floor, pine bark and pine needle. Also, cadmium pollution varies depending on the distance from the road (3 m, 50 m and 100 m)

Polymorphism of the ovine calpastatin gene in some Turkish sheep breeds

The calpastatin (CAST) gene has a major effect on muscle growth and meat tenderness after slaughter; it is located on the fifth chromosome in sheep. Blood samples were collected from 720 animals in total from Kivircik (KIV), Sakiz (SZ), Karacabey Merino (KM), and Gokceada (GA) sheep populations raised in West Anatolia. The PCR products were digested by the restriction endonuclease MspI. Allele frequencies for M and N alleles of the gene were found to be 0.85 and 0.15 in KIV, 0.80 and 0.20 in KM, 0.99 and 0.01 in GA, and 0.34 and 0.66 in SZ sheep, respectively. It was determined that NN genotype frequency was quite lower in KIV (0.04) and KM (0.07) populations than in the SZ breed (0.40). On the other hand, the NN genotype was not observed in the GA population. Populations other than KM were found to be in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. In general, allele and genotype frequencies of CAST were similar to those in other studies on different sheep populations. This research is a beginning step for finding candidate genes’ effects on meat quantity and quality.

Polygonum melihaesp. nov. (Polygonaceae) from inner west Anatolia, Turkey

Polygonum melihae Gemici & Kit Tan sp. nov. (Polygonaceae), a local endemic of inner west Anatolia is described as a species new to science and illustrated by photographs. The closest affinities are with P. afyonicum and P. setosum. Morphological characteristics and information about ecology and distribution are provided and the three taxa are compared. Dissimilarities with two Greek endemics, P. papillosum and P. idaeum, are also mentioned.

Mycotoxigenic moulds and mycotoxins in flours consumed in Turkey

Aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are metabolites produced by several fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium and have been found to contaminate human foods and animal feeds. The aim of this study was to investigate the abundance and diversity of total microfungi and mycotoxigenic fungi in 25 samples of different grain-based flours from four regions of Turkey (Thrace and Central, Northwest and West Anatolia) and to evaluate the level of AF and OTA contamination. Microscopic and polymerase chain reaction analyses were used to identify fungi, while high-performance liquid chromatography was used for the detection of AFs and OTA. A total of 551 fungal strains were obtained from the samples and identified morphologically and by multi-locus gene sequencing. All samples were contaminated with fungi ((2-4.8) × 10(4) colony-forming units g(-1) ) and three of them exceeded the European Commission (EC) limits. The data also revealed that 70.5 and 14.7% of the fungal isolates were positive for AF and OTA production respectively. In addition, 21 samples were contaminated by AFs (14.98 and 22.4 µg kg(-1) for AFB1 ) and OTA (3.02 and 4.76 µg kg(-1) ) and three of them exceeded the EC limits. This study is the first report on problems with the occurrence of microfungi, mycotoxin contamination, AFs and OTA in different grain-based flour samples from Turkey and highlights developable points of current limits for food and public health safety.

Integrated systematics of thePoecilimon luschanispecies group (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae): radiation as a chain of populations in a small heterogeneous area

The Poecilimon luschani species group (Orthoptera, Tettigonioidea, Phaneropterinae), ranging along a narrow line in West Anatolia and the Balkan mountains, has been revised using integrated data from morphology, bioacoustics, and DNA sequences of two matrilineal markers. A taxonomic approach neutral with respect to existing species/subspecies was applied to the sampled populations. The male calling song showed poor variation amongst the populations. Of the morphological structures, only the male cerci and male subgenital plate offer diagnostic characters but they are secondary gains or losses in most cases. Phylogenetic analyses applied to a data matrix consisting of concatenated 1401 bp long sequences of 16S rDNA and cytochrome oxidase subunit I produced from specimens of the group resulted in trees with similar topologies. Both genetic and phenotypic data confirmed the species status of the geographically discrete Izmir, Balkan, Aydin, Kutahya, and Balikesir populations. However, 13 populations located in the southern part of the group's range in Antalya and Mugla Provinces of Turkey present a complex phylogenetic and morphological pattern of three morphological units, but two phylogroups. By integrating song, morphology, and phylogenetic data the following conclusions were made. The species status of Poecilimon ledereri and Poecilimon orbelicus was confirmed. The Aydin population was re-established as a valid species, P. tuncayi stat. rev. The Kutahya population was elevated to species level as Poecilimon egrigozi Unal, 2005, stat. nov. The Balikesir population is here described as a new species Poecilimon helleri sp. nov. The southern lineage of the species group exhibits characteristics of a chain species with three subspecies. Poecilimon luschani is retained as the species name by priority and the Poecilimon birandi is considered its subspecies as Poecilimon luschani birandi stat. nov. A new subspecies Poecilimon luschani chobanovi ssp. nov. is described. The phylogenetic relationships amongst the proposed taxa are as follows: P. ledereri + (P. orbelicus + (P. tuncayi + (P. egrigozi + P. helleri) + (P. luschani luschani + P. luschani birandi + P. luschani chobanovi))). © 2013 The Linnean Society of London

Prevalence of cerebrovascular disease: a door-to-door survey in West Anatolia

The aim of this study was to demonstrate the prevalence of cerebrovascular disease (CVD), and its relation to age, education, gender, and other risk factors in the city of Denizli, Turkey. The study was performed between 2010 and 2011 in the city center, where 138,000 inhabitants >45 years were included in the research. 2,441 inhabitants were selected by cluster sampling method. A specific questionnaire about CVD was employed during the interview. We inquired about patient's age, gender, and educational history. If there was suspicion of CVD, cranial imaging was performed, and recent medical records were re-evaluated. The mean age was 58 ± 10.1 (45-100) among 2,441 in this study. Of those, 1,257 (51.5 %) participants were female and 1,184 (48.5 %) were male. We found the prevalence of CVD to be 0.9 % with 0.68 % among males and 1.21 % among females (p = 0.023). The mean age of subjects with CVD was 72.4 ± 8.1 (56-86) years. CVD was found to increase with age (p = 0.001), but was lower than reported rates in other European countries; however, it was similar to that of Mediterranean countries. CVD was detected more frequently in women than men. This finding differed from other studies, but was first to evaluate the prevalence of CVD in Turkey.

Eocene-Quaternary magmatic activity in the Aegean: Implications for mantle metasomatism and magma genesis in an evolving orogeny

We present a compilation and comparison of geochemical data of Aegean Eocene to Recent magmatic rocks: (1) North Anatolian Eocene magmatic rocks (NAEM), (2) Aegean to west Anatolian Oligocene–Miocene magmatic rocks (AOMM), (3) Pliocene–Quaternary South Aegean volcanic arc (SAVA), (4) Pliocene–Quaternary Denizli–Isparta volcanics (DIV), and (5) Na-alkaline basalts with intra-plate geochemical affinity (IPV). These rocks are also compared with Miocene Galatean volcanics (GVP) from central Anatolia.The NAEM, SAVA and GVP show similar geochemical features indicative of a subduction-related origin in which subducted oceanic plate contaminated the overlying mantle wedge. The distinct geochemical features of the AOMM reflect derivation from an intensely metasomatised mantle source, resulting from partial subduction and accretion of both continental and oceanic assemblages in the fore-arc of a southward migrating subduction system. These features provide an insight into the history of the distinct types of mantle metasomatism in the region and into its geodynamic evolution — an evolution that include complex interaction of subduction roll-back, slab break-off, strike-slip faulting along major transfer zones, block rotations and core complex formation.Thus, the Eocene to recent magmatism in the region was controlled by various tectonic events: (1) the NAEM was most probably related to break-off of the subducted slab in western Anatolia, (2) magmatic activity in the western AOMM was controlled by rotational extension around poles in northern Greece developed in response to rotational roll-back of the Hellenic subduction system, (3) while AOMM magmatism in the east is closely associated with core complex formation and asthenosphere-related thermal input along a ~N–S-trending slab tear. In contrast, the rocks of the DIV and IPV carry asthenospheric mantle geochemical signatures indicative of roll-back induced asthenospheric upwelling in Rhodope to NW Anatolia, and slab tear-induced asthenospheric upwelling beneath the Menderes Core Complex.

Alluvial geoarchaeology of a small drainage basin in western Anatolia: Late Holocene landscape development and the question of the mouth of the Paleo-Bakırçay

Late Holocene landscape evolution in the Geyikli basin, a sub-catchment of the Bakırçay basin on the West Anatolian Coast, and its implications for the plaeogeography of the environs of ancient Pergamon (modern Bergama), were studied by a combination of archaeological and geographical investigations. The study aims to investigate whether the “Dörpfeld Scenario” of the paleogeographical situation in the Lower Bakırçay Valley is true or not. The scenario postulates that during the Late Holocene, an alluvial fan, fed from the Geyikli valley, progressively closed a topographical constriction between the Aegean Sea and a supposed paleo-gulf that occupied the Lower Bakırçay Valley. Initially, this caused the development of an inland lake, and finally the shift of the mouth of the Paleo-Bakırçay from a northern position to its modern southern position.The lithostratigraphy of four sediment outcrops in the Lower Geyikli Basin and in the topographical constriction between the Aegean Coastal Plain and the Bakırçay Valley shows that during the past ca. 1950 years, the Lower Geyikli Valley was inhabited by a braided river with a highly dynamic depositional system. Sedimentation totalled about 4–6 m in the past 1950 years, indicating a “drowning” of the landscape in terrestrial sediments. In recent times, gravel mining has led to a deformation of the valley floor, and the Geyikli's fluvial terrace has become inactive. The lack of any sediment related to a Paleo-Gulf or a Paleo-Lake inside the Bakırçay Basin, as well as the lack of any sediments of a northern Paleo-Bakırçay, documents that the “Dörpfeld Scenario” does not apply for the past 1950 years. Archaeological findings show that the Geyikli Basin was intensively settled in historic times, but there is no evidence that the Geyikli Basin was anthropogenically deformed in a way that could have contributed to the “Dörpfeld Scenario”.

Late Holocene human–environmental interactions in the Eastern Mediterranean: Settlement history and paleogeography of an ancient Aegean hill-top settlement

Interactions between settlement history and landscape evolution of a hill-top settlement on the West Anatolian Coast near ancient Pergamon (modern Bergama) were studied by a combination of archaeological and geographical investigations. Ceramics, ancient literary and epigraphic texts, numismatics and architectural remains show that the hill-top had been populated since late Bronze Age times. From the sixth century BC until the change of the eras, the hill was occupied by a Greek polis – Atarneus – and was abandoned afterwards. It was newly populated in the second half of the twelfth and the first half of the thirteenth century AD.The lithostratigraphy of nine drilling cores, arranged in three transects and dated by AMS radiocarbon dating, shows that during the past 4000 years the sedimentary plains surrounding the settlement hill were aggraded by braided and meandering rivers, while colluviation and alluvial fan deposition occurred at the foot-slopes. Sedimentation totaled about 5–7 m in the past 4000 years, evidencing a “drowning” of the landscape in terrestrial sediments. Although channels shifted repeatedly and alluvial fan deposition fluctuated, the depositional system did not change in general during the past 4000 years. This striking resistance to the changing settlement and land use intensity is an effect of the distinct modification of the slopes through terracing that countervailed erosion and likewise increased the buffering capacity of the sediment storages on the slopes. There is no evidence that landscape deterioration contributed to the abandonment of the settlement hill. Rather, socio-economic factors were crucial for the rise and fall of the settlements occupying the hill.

Preliminary risk assessment of radon in groundwater: a case study from Eskisehir, Turkey

The aim of this study was to determine the radon concentrations in the water supplies of a residential area of central west Anatolia, Turkey. This research provides a preliminary risk assessment for inhabitants in the study area which can be applied for other regions. In 14 out of the 19 water supplies analysed, radon concentrations exceeded the maximum contaminant level (11.1 Bq l−1). The total annual effective doses of 10 for the wet season and 14 for the dry season out of the 19 water supplies are greater than the values recommended by EPA [Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides, Federal Guidance Report No. 13 (US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 1999) <http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/docs/federal/402-r-99-001.pdf>] (0.1 mSv a−1). The elevated radon concentrations in water resources are most probably linked with geological origin which contains significant amounts of radioactive minerals.

Identification of benzoin obtained from calli of Styrax officinalis by HPLC

The stem tissue of Styrax officinalis L. distributed in West Anatolia was induced with agents such as boric acid and cocarboxylase (thiamine diphosphate), extensive stimulators of resin channels, in order to increase the amount of benzoin volatile oil. While the benzoin content was 120% in the induction medium to which excess boron and niacin were added, it increased to 231% when cocarboxylase (thiamine diphosphate) was added to the medium. Benzoin content of Styrax from petiole calli was 166%. HPLC-DAD results revealed that benzoin resin was present in 90% of the stems of Styrax officinalis distributed in West Anatolia. The major components of excess boron- and niacin-induced stem calli were hexane (58.33%), 3-methyl 2-pentene (16.10%), and cyclohexane (8.88%). Hexane (62%), methyl cyclopentane (19.09%), cyclohexane (12.04%), 2-hexanone (0.04%), ethylbenzene (0.03%), and benzene and 1-chloro-2-methylpropyl benzene (propene) were identified by the cocarboxylase application and GC-MS method. With enzyme application, while the percentages of decane and benzyl alcohol decreased, the cyclohexane ratio increased to 12.04%. Acetone (0.03%), ethyl acetate (4.10%), and dichloro methane (0.17%) contents were high as well.

Microelement Status and Soil and Plant Relationships of Olive Groves in West Anatolia Region of Turkey

The importance of olives to human health and nutrition is gradually increasing every passing year. Olive is a cultivated perennial plant, produced as table olives and olive oil, which are of economic importance in the Mediterranean countries—the most widespread olive-growing area—and Asian, American, and North African countries. In Turkey, olive growing is mostly carried out in the Aegean region followed by the Marmara and the Mediterranean regions. Thanks to the recently established olive groves, the importance of olive growing has increased. Although olive trees are more resistant to unfavorable conditions than other fruits, some problems such as a decrease in the yield and quality of the product may appear if there is a nutrition deficiency. Conditions for olive growing should be improved to provide the olive trees with better nutrition. To realize this aim, by determining nutritional status of sampling provinces with soil and leaf analysis recommendations about more accurate fertilization techniques will be provided. In this study, the amounts of microelements in the soil of olive groves and the nutritional status of microelements of olive trees in the provinces of Izmir, Manisa, Aydin, Mugla, Balikesir, Canakkale, and Bursa in the West Anatolia region were examined between the years of 1997 and 2009, and the relationships between the results of soil analysis and the results of leaf analysis were evaluated. Statistically significant correlations between the amounts of microelements in the soils and the amounts of microelements in the leaves were obtained. Although the soil and leaf samples were observed to have deficiencies in iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and boron (B), the deficiency in copper (Cu) was found in only leaf samples. According to the results of soil analysis, it was observed that 39% of the groves reveal deficiency in Zn, whereas the results of the leaf analysis revealed that 75% of them had deficiency in Mn. It is vital that these results be taken into consideration while preparing fertilization programs.

Clothes and Identity: The Case of the Greeks in Ionia c. 400 BC

AbstractThe capacity of the individual to maintain several identities concurrently is well established, as is the ability of dress to reflect (passively) or to announce (actively) the social identities of its bearer. Within a multi-national structure such as the Achaemenid Persian Empire the semiosis of dress is especially complex. Since dress functions as a form of non-verbal communication, study of the language of dress of past cultures must appeal to the widest possible range of literary and visual sources.Analysis of the visual arts within the Persian sphere shows careful attention to vestimental definition of the Iranian ‘dominant ethno-class’ and its separation from the dress of the subject peoples in the western empire. Artistic and literary evidence for the Greek and West Anatolian experience of the Persian Empire testifies to the extent of the Persian presence in the west. It also shows the cultural flexibility of the local populations, who might occasionally emulate the Persian model by adopting Persian dress while retaining the traits of their traditional cultures.

Fracture networks and strike–slip deformation along reactivated normal faults in Quaternary travertine deposits, Denizli Basin, western Turkey

The Denizli Basin in the West Anatolian Extensional Province in western Turkey is known for its numerous Quaternary travertine occurrences. Travertine morphology is often dependant on the relative position of the deposition with respect to basin-bounding faults. The travertine occurrences examined in this study are situated at the intersection of the locally E–W oriented Denizli Basin and the adjacent NE–SW oriented Baklan Graben in the NE. Based on an extensive field campaign, including LIDAR scanning, several high-resolution fault/fracture maps of five large quarries (>300m in length and >60m in height) are constructed in which this world-class travertine deposit is currently excavated. A structural analysis is performed in order to determine the tectonic overprinting of the travertine body and to derive the stress states of the basin after travertine deposition. The mostly open, non-stratabound joints are several tens of metres long and often bifurcate creating a dense fracture network. Minor infill of the joints resulted in the presence of a few colour-banded calcite veins. Based on the E–W, NE–SW and NW–SE orientation of three dominant joint sets it is concluded that the joint network is caused by local N-S extension, alternated by NW–SE and NE–SW extension exemplifying the presence of stress permutations in the Quaternary. High angle E–W to WNW–ESE faults cross-cut the quarries. Faults are filled with travertine debris and clastic infill of above lying sedimentary units indicative of the open nature of the faults. The specific E–W fault orientation in the locally E–W trending Denizli Basin indicates that they initiated as normal faults. A paleostress inversion analysis performed on kinematic indicators such as striations on the clayey fault infill and the sinistral displacement of paleosols shows that some of the normal faults were reactivated causing left-lateral deformation in a transient strike–slip stress field with a NE–SW oriented σ1.

Map view restoration of Aegean–West Anatolian accretion and extension since the Eocene

The Aegean region (Greece, western Turkey) is one of the best studied continental extensional provinces. Here, we provide the first detailed kinematic restoration of the Aegean region since 35 Ma. The region consists of stacked upper crustal slices (nappes) that reflect a complex paleogeography. These were decoupled from the subducting African‐Adriatic lithospheric slab. Especially since ∼25 Ma, extensional detachments cut the nappe stack and exhumed its metamorphosed portions in metamorphic core complexes. We reconstruct up to 400 km of trench‐perpendicular (NE‐SW) extension in two stages. From 25 to 15 Ma, the Aegean forearc rotated clockwise relative to the Moesian platform around Euler poles in northern Greece, accommodated by extensional detachments in the north and an inferred transfer fault SE of the Menderes massif. The majority of extension occurred after 15 Ma (up to 290 km) by opposite rotations of the western and eastern parts of the region. Simultaneously, the Aegean region underwent up to 650 km of post‐25 Ma trench‐parallel extension leading to dramatic crustal thinning on Crete. We restore a detachment configuration with the Mid‐Cycladic Lineament representing a detachment that accommodated trench‐parallel extension in the central Aegean region. Finally, we demonstrate that the Sakarya zone and Cretaceous ophiolites of Turkey cannot be traced far into the Aegean region and are likely bounded by a pre‐35 Ma N‐S fault zone. This fault became reactivated since 25 Ma as an extensional detachment located west of Lesbos Island. The paleogeographic units south of the İzmir‐Ankara‐Sava suture, however, can be correlated from Greece to Turkey.

Structural evidence for strike-slip deformation in the İzmir–Balıkesir transfer zone and consequences for late Cenozoic evolution of western Anatolia (Turkey)

The İzmir–Balıkesir transfer zone (İBTZ) is a recently recognized strike-slip dominated shear zone that accommodates the differential deformation between the Cycladic and Menderes core complexes within the Aegean Extensional System. Here, we present new structural and kinematic data obtained from field observations and 1/25,000 scale mapping of Miocene to Recent units within the İBTZ around İzmir Bay. The results point out that the İBTZ is a transtensional brittle shear zone that affects the pre-Neogene basement rock units, the early-middle Miocene volcano-sedimentary units and the Plio–Quaternary continental units.The analysis of large-scale structures and fault kinematic data indicate that three different deformation phases prevailed in the İzmir Bay region during the late Cenozoic. The first phase (Phase 1) is characterized by N–S directed extension and E–W contraction that gave way to the development of strike-slip faults with normal components and likely took place during the early (?) to late Miocene. This transtensional phase, forming the volcano-sedimentary basin of deposition was overprinted by the second phase (Phase 2) which is characterized by variable extension and contraction directions indicating wrench- to extension-dominated transtension. The structures related to Phase 2 are observed all around the İzmir Bay and indicate a distributed nature of the deformation that probably took place during the early Pliocene, coeval with the end of the activity of the Mid-Cycladic Lineament and the last exhumation of the central Menderes Massif. The latest deformation phase (Phase 3) is characterized by an association of NW–SE trending left-lateral and NE–SW trending right-lateral strike-slip faults and E–W trending normal faults forming transtensional deformation. During Phase 3, the İBTZ evolved from a wider shear zone into a relatively narrow discrete fault zone by the late Pliocene, during which the strike-slip and extensional deformation were completely decoupled from each other. The field-based evidence for strike-slip deformation from the region has only recently been recognized, but has very important implications for understanding the deformation styles and coupling of Aegean–West Anatolian extensional deformation system along the İBTZ. We conclude that the İzmir Bay Basin developed during the Plio–Quaternary within the dextral İBTZ.

Environmental and depositional characteristics of diatomite deposit, Alayunt Neogene Basin (Kutahya), West Anatolia, Turkey

This paper describes the geological-depositional and environmental characteristics of diatomite. The diatomite deposit is situated in the southern part of the Alayunt (Kutahya) Basin. Samples of 18 diatomites and 12 host rocks were collected from four sedimentary profiles in the spring season. Basement rocks are Paleozoic-aged metamorphic rocks (schist, phyllite, quartzite, etc.) and Mesozoic-aged ophiolitic and complex rocks. Host rocks are rhyodacitic–rhyolitic tuffite, volcanic glass. Diatomite is composed of Upper Miocene–Upper Pliocene-aged diatom species. Diatomite shows layer morphology and lies on volcanic glass layer. XRD characteristic peaks of diatomite show that it comprises dominantly of Opal-A silica, whereas volcanic glass has Opal-CT constituent. SEM and NPM photomicrographs indicate that diatomites are dominantly composed of benthic freshwater diatom species, such as Pinnularia microstauron, Pinnularia lundii, Pinnulariasubrostrata, Pinnularia brevicostata, Pinnularia tenuis, Pinnularia sp., Navicula eligensis, Fragilaria construens, Mastogloia braunii Grunow, Melosira varians Agardh, Surirellacapronii Brebisson, Cymbella lanceoloata, Amphora venata, Gomphonema germainii, Gomphonema angustatum and Rhapalodia gibba. These species are general indicators of shallow paleolake environment and cool climate conditions. Due to the fluvial currents and climatic conditions; lake water levels, temperature and nutrient content fluctuated through the time. Chemical data obtained from 18 diatomite samples show that while silica is the bodybuilding material for diatomite (over 89 % SiO2), Al, Mg and Fe contents of diatomite samples might be derived from clastic materials. The concentration of Al, Mg and Fe decreases toward the lake center. Diatom genera, sedimentary profile sections and mineralogic data suggest that diatomite deposited in lacustrine-type freshwater shallow lake is associated with Upper Miocene-aged extension tectonics. Physical and filtration tests along with environmental characteristics of diatomite suggest that calcined diatomite can be used for waste treatment processes in the filter aid industry.

Active constituents of some Satureja L. species and their biological activities

Methanol extracts from the aerial parts of three Satureja L. spp. belonging to the family Lamiaceae were studied. S. cilicica is endemic to Turkey; S. icarica and S. coerulea extend to West Anatolia; S. icarica extends to the Turkish-Greek border and S. coerulea extends to the Turkish-Bulgarian border. S. icarica, S. coerulea, and S. cilicica extracts had strong fungicidal effects at high concentrations and fungistatic effects at lower concentrations. Plant methanol extracts were investigated for their antibacterial, antifungal and antimycobacterial activity. To our knowledge, this is the first report of S. cilicicamycobactericidal activity against M. tuberculosis. Phenolic constituents were detected using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses; the effective constituents of methanol extracts of these plants are presented, and their activities and their ethnobotanical uses are discussed. Key words: Antibacterial, antifungal, antimycobacterial, Lamiaceae, Satureja icarica,Satureja coerulea, Satureja cilicica.

THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS TRADE WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF THE PANAZTEPE FINDS

The Late Bronze Age is a period during which intensive transactions occurred in the Mediterranean and Near East. The glass trade became a real industry, exhibiting the innovations of the period from around the region. The glass finds of the Late Bronze Age consisted of valuable gifts exchanged between the elite classes of Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Aegean. The objective of this study is to reconstruct Late Bronze Age glass trade systems in the light of archaeological data recovered from Panaztepe, located in the Izmir region of west Anatolia. The glass finds at Panaztepe are represented by examples such as necklace spacers, relief beads, and spherical and circular beads recovered from the two burial grounds. While the interior chronologies of the tombs have not been completely distinguished, it is thought that most of these finds were used during the Late Helladic III A–B periods.