West African States Research Articles

Wildlife trade at the interface between deeply-rooted animal-based traditional medicine and unregulated harvesting of wild animals in West Africa

Local trade remains a data poor component of wildlife crime that must be better understood for more effective combat against the illegal wildlife trade. We assessed the distribution of wildlife markets, diversity of species traded and the extent of the trade chain through spatial analysis of wildlife sale sites and semi-structured interviews with 75 vendors in the 10 largest traditional medicine markets of Benin. GPS coordinates of wildlife markets were used to map their geographic distribution and assess their spatial patterns. We used a generalized linear model to determine the drivers underlying the spatial patterns of wildlife markets. A circular layout was designed to delineate the geographic extent of wildlife trade in terms of supplying sources. We found that wildlife was traded at 121 sale sites in Benin, highly dominated by traditional medicine markets (106 sites). The spatial analysis of markets exhibited an aggregative distribution pattern, and the type of market, the number of stalls in the markets and the municipality status influence significantly the spatial temporality of market distribution. Wildlife trade for traditional medicine affected 268, 96 and 61 bird, mammal and reptile species, respectively, and included species of both high national and global conservation concern. We also found that the national wildlife trade in Benin was supplied from 80% (12/15) West African Economic and Monetary countries, and all the Economic Community of West African States (except Guinea-Bissau) in violation of national laws, CITES, and regional commitments to combat wildlife trafficking (e.g., the West African Strategy for Combatting Wildlife Crime). Our study in Benin is a big step to revealing trade throughout in West Africa. It provides much needed information on wildlife trade structure and driving forces that could help to inform decision-making for better trade regulation and for effective wildlife law enforcement in West Africa. Other studies should do the same to help paint a more complete picture of wildlife trade in West Africa.

Threshold and Spatial Effects of Fiscal Policy on Business Cycle Synchronisation in the Economic Community of West African States

Abstract This research analyses the threshold effects of fiscal policy on business cycle synchronisation in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The main contribution is the analysis of the effects of respecting versus not respecting deficit and debt thresholds on the synchronisation of business cycles through the creation of binary variables. The study covers the period 1990–2020 and fourteen ECOWAS countries. The results show that the optimal pro-growth thresholds for the budget deficit and debt are 5.559% and 45.61% of GDP, respectively. Furthermore, spatial analysis reveals significant positive spatial spillover effects of respecting these thresholds on synchronising business cycles within ECOWAS. The current convergence criterion of −3% for the budget balance is favourable for growth and business cycle convergence. In addition, the current debt convergence criterion of 70% of GDP could be adjusted. Our results suggest the need to strengthen revenue mobilisation, harmonise taxation and improve the monitoring of fiscal standards.

The political economy of gender mainstreaming in energy access in Sierra Leone

Abstract In 2017, the Economic Community of West African States launched its Policy for Gender Mainstreaming in Energy Access with each member state tasked to create a National Action Plan (NAP). This study explores the case of Sierra Leone, to understand how stakeholders have influenced the NAP process, and what that might mean for implementation. Using the Actor-Objective-Context framework with interview data from key gender and energy actors. We find elements that make Sierra Leone’s NAP unique; such as addressing systematic barriers, explicitly promoting solar energy and heavily relying on civil society. The study finds that a policy focus on gender reflects both a push from international donor organisations and the national efforts of civil society. Sierra Leone’s NAP reflects the tension between the high priority of gender politics at the national and international level and more immediate interest from the Ministry of Energy and government actors on economic development. It affirms the uneasy co-existence of the liberal and liberating view of women in international development with some evidence that the liberal view prevails. Still, despite the government focus on economic development, poor engagement with the private sector and cultural barriers are likely to hamper the inclusion of women into the energy industry.

STRENGTHENING THE RULE OF LAW: LEVERAGING AFRICAN UNION SUB-REGIONAL BODIES TO ADDRESS MILITARY COUPS IN AFRICA

Military coups have emerged as a significant challenge to democratic stability and governance in Africa, undermining the rule of law and reversing decades of progress in political reforms. This paper explores how the African Union (AU) can strategically engage its sub-regional bodies, such as Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the East African Community (EAC), and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), to strengthen the rule of law and curtail the resurgence of military coups across the continent. These sub-regional organizations possess unique insights into their respective geopolitical landscapes and are well-positioned to implement preventive and corrective measures. The paper identifies key strategies, including capacity-building initiatives to strengthen judicial and electoral institutions, fostering inclusive governance to address grievances, and enhancing the rapid deployment of conflict mediation teams. It emphasizes the importance of a unified approach, where the AU coordinates efforts across sub-regional bodies to enforce legal frameworks such as the African Charter on Democracy, Elections, and Governance. Furthermore, the study examines case studies of successful and failed interventions by these bodies to derive lessons for effective implementation. However, challenges such as resource limitations, political interference, and inconsistent enforcement mechanisms impede these efforts. The paper argues that overcoming these barriers requires political will, increased funding, and stronger partnerships with global organizations. By leveraging the unique strengths of its sub-regional bodies, the AU can promote the rule of law, deter unconstitutional power seizures, and contribute to sustainable democratic governance across Africa.

Regional Power Dynamics and Security Approaches: A Comparative Study of SADC and ECOWAS

This study examines regional power dynamics and security approaches within two prominent African regional organisations: ECOWAS– Economic Community of West African States and the SADC– Southern African Development Community. Since Africa remains insecure due to internal conflicts, and terrorism, regional organisations have a vital role in stability. ECOWAS and SADC are particularly marked by their specific security mechanisms; however, they are located in different political, social and economic environments and thus perform differently in terms of management and resolution of conflict. Using the theoretical framework of power theory and the adoption of case study research design and content analysis, the research critically explores regional power dynamics and security approaches within SADC and ECOWAS. The findings reveal that while ECOWAS’s interventionist policies enable swift action, they sometimes face issues of sustainability and regional buy-in. In contrast, SADC’s consensus-driven approach promotes stability but can lead to prolonged conflict resolution processes. This study contributes to the broader discourse on regional security in Africa, highlighting the need for adaptable strategies that address both immediate threats and long-term stability in diverse geopolitical environments. The study concludes that while both SADC and ECOWAS employ different strategies in Western and Southern Africa, yet the approaches are similar in many ways. Consequently, the two organisations though having the common strategic object of creating stability at regional level have significantly different operating models defined by their respective historical, political and socio-economic circumstances. These differences define their security actions, the coordination of the states which are members of the union, and their performance in the handling of conflicts.

Incidence, prevalence and risk factors for comorbid mental illness among people with hypertension and type 2 diabetes in West Africa: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis

IntroductionMental illness remains a significant global health concern that affects diverse populations, including individuals living with hypertension and/or type 2 diabetes, predominantly in lower-income to middle-income countries. The association between...

Herders without borders: transhumance securitisation and the challenges of national security in Ghana and Nigeria

As an enduring agricultural practice in Africa, transboundary herding has remained a major source of conflict among agro-land users, especially between the Fulani nomadic pastoralists and peasant farmers/host communities. Although extant studies broadly agree that this herding practice is prone to violence, the actual factors which predispose this agricultural practice to violence vary across studies, ranging from climate change and environmental security, population growth and urbanisation, manipulation of cultural and ethnic identities, insecurity in the Lake Chad area, to the free movement of persons and goods protocols. However, these studies have glossed over how the securitisation of transhumance contributes to the conflict between nomadic herders and peasant farmers in West Africa—which is the focus of the present study. Data for this study were sourced from documentary evidence, including scholarly literature, media reports, and official documents from relevant protocols of the Economic Community of West African States. Relying on the basic assumptions of securitisation theory, the study found that transhumance securitisation as a default state response strategy against agro-land use conflicts between nomadic herders and peasant farmers has become counterproductive in West Africa.

Examining current regional intensity of trade in Africa: How strong are the trade linkages and implications for intra-Africa trade in the African Continental Free Trade Area

The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a continent-wide free trade area which is expected to pave way for a continental customs union. This article assessed the current state and extent of intra-Africa trade in 2001-2018. The results give insights into the foundation which the current regional economic communities in Africa have put in place regarding intra- and inter-trade linkages. This is a foundation which the AfCFTA would utilise to achieve trade integration in a continent-wide economic integration arrangement that seeks to improve intra-Africa trade. Five regional groups were considered, namely Arab Maghreb Union, East African Community, the Economic Community of West African States, Economic Community of Central Africa States, and the Southern African Development Community. Intra-regional trade intensity index results show that trade within individual regional groups, and within Africa, is oriented towards respective member countries, although there is no evidence of increased inward orientation over time. Inter-regional trade intensity index results show that most regional groups trade intensively with each other, albeit at different levels. With increased market access in the AfCFTA through lower trade resistances between regional groups, inter-regional trade is expected to increase as per the volume of trade criteria in the natural trading partners hypothesis.

Государственная миграционная политика стран ЭКОВАС: основные направления и тенденции

The article examines basic approaches to state migration policy of the Economic Community of West African States’ members. Interest in this issue is due to the need of modern political science to find new and improve existing means, methods and technologies for regulating migration flows of the population. Models for managing population migration in West Africa are complex and multi-level state political and legal mechanisms, the study of the functioning of which allows us to assess the effectiveness of these models. Based on this, the article solves the problem of identifying the key directions in the formation of state migration policy in the ECOWAS countries and their justification. The factors determining directions and trends of migration policy and main forms of its implementation in modern conditions are considered. The emphasis is on revealing political-institutional and ideological components of the state migration policy of the ECOWAS countries. The role of subregional and regional institutions in the process of state regulation of population migration is determined.

Research brief: Analysis of policy responses to seed, fertilizer, food and fuel shocks in three African Regional Economic Communities

The COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war had severe implications for global food security and nutrition. It was feared that food systems would be impacted negatively, especially food, seed, fertilizer, and fuel quantities required for agricultural production. The study aimed to ascertain the extent to which calls to action by AU policy organs, as well as recommendations by experts, to mitigate possible effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, were implemented at the national level across three of the five regional economic communities and whether they yielded any tangible impacts. The study conducted a desk review of literature and key informant interviews in 18 African countries. We found a wide range of varia­tions in terms of country responses to the pan­demic. Countries in the East African Community focused more on expanding targeted social protec­tion programs, Economic Community of West African States countries focused more on support­ing smallholder farmers and digital agriculture, and the Southern African Development Community focused on budgetary stimulus packages. We found a lack of coherence in responding to the crisis within each region to improve the supply and dis­tribution of food, seed, fertilizer, and fuel; thus, necessitating an immediate and aggressive imple­mentation of strategies aligned with continental and regional policy resolutions and recommenda­tions.

Impact of Trade Integration on Poverty Reduction in ECOWAS

This paper examines the impact of trade integration on poverty reduction in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). To investigate the impact of trade integration on poverty reduction, data for all fifteen member countries of ECOWAS on the number of poor people, bilateral trade, trade openness, exchange rate, foreign direct investment, interest rate, inflation rate, and import tariff were collected from the World Bank, WTO, IMF and WDIs from 2010 to 2019. After various tests, heteroscedasticity was found to be present. Therefore, to address this problem, the Feasible Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) method was used to examine the aforementioned impacts. The results showed that trade openness, bilateral trade, exchange rate, and import duties significantly impact poverty. The results indicated that trade integration is significant in reducing poverty within ECOWAS. The study recommends measures to enhance the effectiveness of trade integration as it has an important impact on reducing poverty in the region. First, ECOWAS should implement policies to support smaller countries in improving their productive capacities to compete effectively within the region. Secondly, harmonization of exchange rates by creating a common currency would facilitate smoother trade flows and contribute to poverty reduction. Member countries should prioritize trade with other ECOWAS nations, implement policies to ensure that foreign investments benefit the local economies, and focus on exporting finished goods rather than raw materials to create employment opportunities and support poverty reduction efforts.

Exchange rate innovation, global pandemic and stock market returns: Empirical evidence from ECOWAS countries

This study used the panel VAR impulse response function model and high-frequency monthly data from 2020M1 to 2021M12 to examine the response of innovations in the exchange rate and stock market returns to the COVID-19 pandemic in Economic Communities of West African States (ECOWAS). The study found that the effect of shocks of COVID-19 today on future exchange rate innovation worsens the real conditions of exchange rate innovation in ECOWAS countries. Again, the impact of the shocks of COVID-19 today on future stock market returns encourages the real conditions of stock market returns in ECOWAS countries. It was recommended that instead of lockdown, ECOWAS governments should explore other policy options peculiar to the region in COVID-19 containment and also strive harder to deepen the stock market and encourage increased utilization of information and communication technology in stock market trading to cut costs, raise returns and connect trade with the rest of the world’s stock markets.

The role of Nigeria in the regional integration process in west Africa (1975 - 2023): Case study of Ecowas

This paper examines Nigeria's role in the regional integration process in West Africa through the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) from 1975 to 2023. Nigeria's significant economic, political, and military influence in the region has positioned it as a key player in ECOWAS. This study explores Nigeria's contributions, challenges, and the impact of its policies on regional integration. Through a comprehensive analysis of historical and contemporary data, this paper provides insights into Nigeria's leadership and its implications for regional stability and development. The findings from the study revealed Nigeria's pivotal role in the regional integration process in West Africa through ECOWAS. Nigeria's economic strength, political leadership, and security contributions have been instrumental in shaping the trajectory of ECOWAS. The country's efforts in promoting economic integration, mediating conflicts, and supporting peacekeeping missions have significantly contributed to regional stability and development. However, the analysis also highlights several challenges that have impacted Nigeria's role. Economic vulnerabilities, domestic political instability, and regional rivalries have occasionally hindered Nigeria's ability to lead effectively. Addressing these challenges is crucial for Nigeria to sustain its leadership role and for ECOWAS to achieve its integration objectives.

Russia–Ukraine war and the cost of borrowing in the West African Economic and Monetary Union sovereign debt market

AbstractThis paper contributes to the emerging literature on the economic impacts of the Russia–Ukraine war by estimating the effects of that war on FCFA‐denominated sovereign bond yields and spreads for the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) countries. Using ordinary least squares regressions on monthly panel data from January 2020 to December 2022, we found three key results. First, the Russia–Ukraine war significantly increased long‐term government bonds but had no impact on short‐term sovereign bond yields. Second, the Russia–Ukraine war raised sovereign bond spreads in WAEMU countries. These results suggest that WAEMU countries may consider reducing sovereign long‐term bond issuances and exploiting alternative financing sources, such as concessional financing, until the war and its corollary of global economic and financial imbalances are resolved. Finally, we found that the Central Bank of West African States's policy rate hikes increase governments' borrowing costs. Given this impact, we recommend complementing monetary policy with nonmonetary and fiscal policy measures to ease inflationary pressure from the Russia–Ukraine war. This approach may help mitigate the upward pressure driven by monetary policy tightening on sovereign borrowing costs in the WAEMU government securities markets.

A proposal for a common currency based on resources of the Alliance of Sahel States. Theoretical and practical issues

On 6 July 2024 in Niamey, the leaders of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger signed the constitutive act of the Confederation of Sahel States, at the same time confirming the departure of these three countries from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The new Confederation of the Sahel States has decided, among other things, to set up an investment bank and a stabilisation fund. It is therefore plausible that the confederation will soon adopt a common currency. This issue is of utmost importance for many countries so it is worthwhile to see how the proposed new currency will be guaranteed by the natural resources of the Alliance of Sahel States (AES). The aim of this article is to examine the theoretical foundations and practical aspects underlying the creation of a common currency based on natural resources within the AES.

Analysis of the Relationship Between Military Expenditure and Investment in the Economic Community of West African States: A Heterogeneous Panel Data Approach

Abstract West Africa has been grappling with various security challenges prompting governments’ intervention via military expenditure both at the country and regional level. Given the sporadic surge in military expenditure in the region and the potential effect such expenditure may exert on investment which is a sin qua non to the development process of any economy or region, this study utilizes the augmented mean group (AMG) approach and the Granger non-causality test in investigating the impact and causal relationship between investment and military expenditure in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) between 1980 and 2020. With country-specific cross-dependence and heterogeneity adequately accounted for, the study found that military expenditure has a dampening impact on investment at both the panel and country levels; unemployment adversely impacts investment; whereas economic growth stimulates investment (catalytic effect) in the ECOWAS, although at differing levels of significance. The study also established a long-run relationship among the variables; with only economic growth Granger causing investment. The study thus recommends that country-specific and regional-based military policies be established to glean economic growth through viable investment.

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Public–Private Partnership (PPP) Strategy to Development

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Public–Private Partnership (PPP) Strategy to Development

Türkiye’s Foreign Relations with Regional Blocs in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of AU and ECOWAS

Strong foreign relations among nations are crucial for fostering global stability, economic growth, and cross-cultural understanding. A stable global system that resolves conflicts through dialogue rather than confrontation benefits from positive foreign relations. This paper examines Türkiye’s changing foreign policy approach towards Sub-Saharan African regional blocs, with an emphasis on their political, cultural, and economic facets. Türkiye’s strategic involvement with influential regional bodies such as the African Union (AU) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), among others, reflects its broader objective to expand its influence and cultivate multifaceted partnerships across the African continent. The scope of this paper is limited to the AU and ECOWAS. Through a comprehensive analysis, the paper evaluates Türkiye’s economic initiatives, including trade agreements and investment flows, as well as its contributions to infrastructure development. The findings established Türkiye’s peacekeeping roles, cultural diplomacy, diplomatic efforts, and educational exchanges. Through the investigation of these diverse aspects, the conclusion outlines a comprehensive understanding of Türkiye’s place in geopolitical dynamics and regional integration in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Türkiye-Alliance of Sahel States Relations: A Preliminary Appraisal

This article documents a preliminary appraisal of Türkiye’s relations with the newly formed Alliance of the Sahel States (AES), within the confines of security engagements, economic entanglements, and humanitarian/cultural interactions. To achieve this, the study investigates how the Heartland Theory and the smart power paradigm could assist in exploring Türkiye’s relations with the Alliance. Analyzing official documents and secondary data, the paper takes the view that defense and security engagements have taken center stage of the relations, relegating economic and humanitarian issues to the periphery. This shift positions Türkiye to play a very influential role in Sahelian affairs, particularly in their defense and security. Considering the stiff competition from key non-Western countries with vested interest in the region, especially China and Russia, Türkiye must carefully navigate its relations with regional bodies like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and these other external actors to promote regional stability and cooperation. Amidst the growing discontent expressed by the Alliance towards the Western countries, Ankara is compelled to exert its influential role in a manner different from its predecessors.

Regional Trade and Financial Mobilisation as Preconditions for Economic Growth: The Case of ECOWAS

This empirical study delves into the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and its impact on economic growth through regional trade and financial mobilisation amongst its 15 member states. Through examination of data from 2005 to 2022, the study took into consideration a blend of static and dynamic panel data econometrics to explore nuances of trade openness, foreign direct investment (FDI), Domestic Credit to the Private Sector (CPS), and other factors influencing Real Gross Domestic Product (RGDP). The findings highlight a positive relationship between trade openness, FDI and economic growth, emphasising the importance of regional trade integration and foreign investment in driving economic development. Conversely, domestic credit shows a negative association with economic growth, thereby indicating the need for cautious assessment of credit allocation and financial sector efficiency. The study also reveals the important role of institutional quality in fostering economic growth, thereby recommending for policy reforms that strengthen governance frameworks and promote institutional resilience. Astonishingly, the analysis shows no significant relationship between inflation, transportation infrastructure, and economic growth. Theses insights contribute to a clear understanding of the dynamics between regional trade, financial mobilisation, and economic development within ECOWAS, thereby offering valuable implications for policymakers, with the aim of enhancing economic growth and integration in the region.