West African Countries Research Articles

Monkeypox pandemic in Sudan, surveillance epidemiologic report, 2022

BackgroundMpox, is a zoonosis that is known to be endemic in several Central and West African countries. Recently, in 2022, it has emerged in Europe and United States, what raised the alarm to be declared in late June 2024 as a public health event of international concern. This study aimed to give insight about the recent spread of mpox in Sudan, and documents the epidemiologic situation.MethodsThrough a cross-sectional design, Sudan mpox data was extracted from the disease surveillance line-list at the national level at Sudan Federal Ministry of Health. the data was customized and then analyzed using Epi Info7 software. Analysis was done using frequencies and percentages and the results presented in tables and figures. Permission and ethical approval were obtained from the Health Emergency and Epidemic Control Directorate at the Federal Ministry of Health.ResultsThe outbreak of mpox was confirmed after testing of initial specimens outside Sudan with positivity rate of 72%. Later the cases continued to be reported based on the clinical diagnosis and standard case definition. Out of 375 reported cases, 54.4% were males, while 45.6% were females. The age of cases ranged from one month to 78 years with majority (41.1%) of the cases were children under 5 years of age. Regarding the reported symptoms, all cases had the characteristic skin rash and 74.1% of them had fever. Other symptoms included, headache (31.5%), sore throat (30.9%) and lymphadenopathy (26.1%). For occupation, 35.7% were preschool and 10.4% were school children, 9% of cases were prisoners. Around 22 (5.8%) reported contact history with a confirmed case, while (5.6%) of the cases were imported cases. Cases were reported from 17 states with 42 affected localities (districts) with an overall attack rate of 2.36/ 100,000. The highest number of cases was reported from Gadaref (45.3%), West Darfur (25.9%), Khartoum (13.3%) and north Darfur (3.5%). In Gadaref, 146 (85.8%) of the cases were from a refugees’ camp. Started in epi week 19, the outbreak peaked in week 38 and last in week 42.ConclusionMpox was confirmed in the new Sudan for the first time with cases reported in most of states. Although importation of the virus is hypothesized, internal hidden circulation is possible and more in-depth investigation is highly recommended. The higher rate of infection among preschool, school children and refugees, highlights the need to strengthen the prevention and control measures in schools and camps. More focus on the data completeness is required for better understanding of the disease and can be ensured by the surveillance directorate through training of staff and updating of reporting forms. Strengthening the lab capacity inside the country is a necessity to ensure testing of all the clinically diagnosed cases.

Business ethics and corporate governance – Nigeria’s Guaranty Trust Bank, ca. 1990–2004

Abstract Guaranty Trust Bank (GTB) PLC, a wholly Nigerian business enterprise, founded in 1990, blazed the trail in the banking sector of Nigeria in many respects. By 1995, it had become the fourth most profitable bank in Nigeria and the first indigenous bank to attain a profit-before-tax of one bn naira, and by 2002 had expanded into several West African countries. The significance of the bank is attested by several scholarly studies of its founding, growth, performance and impact. This paper examines a neglected aspect of the history of the bank: its successes and failure in complying with standards of corporate governance and business ethics in a notoriously opaque industry. Specifically, it focuses on the GTB’s relations with statutory regulatory bodies – the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and the National Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC) – as well as its shareholders, who kept the bank on its toes on matters of its business operations. Relying on previously unexploited sources, including minutes of the bank’s board of directors, annual reports and oral evidence provided by members of the board, management and staff, and former top employees of the bank, as well as snippets from the reports of the regulatory bodies (which are not to be cited), this paper highlights issues raised by stakeholders about how the bank managed its affairs, and how it dealt with the queries and questions raised by the external regulators and internal stakeholders in the first 15 years of its existence.

Analyzing childhood (0-59 months) malnutrition determinants in five West African Countries of Gabon, Gambia, Liberia, Mauritania, and Nigeria using survey logistic regression-insights from DHS data

BackgroundMalnutrition is one of the most critical health challenges confronting public health agencies in developing nations. This study aimed to determine the scope and underlying factors contributing to malnutrition in West African countries, specifically Gabon, Gambia, Liberia, Mauritania, and Nigeria.MethodFor this secondary data analysis, this study drew upon the demographic and health surveys (DHS) conducted within these West African nations. These surveys employed a complex sampling design involving a combination of stratification and cluster sampling in two stages, with varying probabilities of selection leading to weighted samples that effectively represented different components of the population. Given the intricacies of this sampling design, it is paramount to account for them when analyzing the survey data. To address this concern, this study applied a survey logistic regression model, which accommodates factors such as stratification, clustering, and sampling weights and departs from the assumption of independence inherent in the ordinary logistic regression model.ResultsThe outcomes of this model revealed several variables that emerged as statistically significant (p < 0.05) determinants of malnutrition. These influential factors encompass the region of the respondent, the current age of the mother, the highest level of education attained by the mother, the source of drinking water, the type of toilet facility, the household’s wealth status, the age and gender of the child, and whether the child experienced a fever in the preceding two weeks.ConclusionThese findings demonstrate with poignant clarity the importance of primary health care interventions in the recognition and management of malnutrition. The countries of interest should invest in public health care interventions including community workshops and outreach programs. Workshops may occur at primary health care facilities during queue waits, or health workers may work with community leaders to perform workshops in areas of high foot traffic, such as places of worship, shopping hubs and collection points for financial aid or grants.

Shadow economy-income inequality nexus: a panel analysis of West African countries

ABSTRACT This paper examines the nexus between shadow economy and income inequality in the West African region. The study applies second-generation panel estimation techniques to analyze the effect and the direction of causation between the variables. The results reveal that the shadow economy reduces income inequality in the region in both short-run and long-run estimations. A similar result is documented when alternative estimation techniques are employed. In addition, the panel causality results show a bidirectional relationship between shadow economy and income inequality in the West African economy. The implications of the study are discussed.

Strategic leadership and organisational change in distance and e-learning contexts

The rapid expansion of e-learning, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has reshaped the educational landscape, necessitating strategic leadership and organisational change. This study examines the pivotal role of strategic leadership in navigating the complexities of digital learning environments and driving successful e-learning initiatives. A comprehensive literature review and data analysis were conducted, utilising sources from the US, West African countries, China and other Asian and European nations. The findings highlight the importance of digital competence, visionary leadership and effective change management strategies in implementing e-learning. Challenges such as technology access disparities, digital fluency and integrating interactive learning tools were identified. The emergence of e-leadership, emphasising adaptability and fostering positive digital learning environments, was also noted. Strategic leadership and organisational change are critical in successfully adopting and managing distance and e-learning. Therefore, policy makers should prioritise addressing technology access gaps, enhancing digital literacy and supporting educators and students. Visionary leadership must be cultivated to steer educational institutions through the evolving demands of the 21st century. The study needs longitudinal data on the long-term impact of e-learning on student outcomes to deal with its limitations and thoroughly examine the financial implications of transitioning to e-learning for educational institutions.

Evaluating the dry matter content of raw yams using hyperspectral imaging spectroscopy and machine learning

Yams (Dioscorea spp.) are important food and commercial crops in West African countries. They contribute significantly to global food production and provide dietary energy. The quality of yam food products depends on specific internal and external parameters, such as the DMC and other biochemical traits. However, measuring these traits can be challenging, particularly when analyzing many genotypes. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging (932–1721 nm) along with machine learning to rapidly measure the dry matter content (DMC) of fresh, intact yam tubers. Hyperspectral images were acquired across the yam tuber’s cross-sections, and the resulting spectra from the images were averaged and preprocessed. Partial least square regression (PLSR) combined with successive progressions algorithms (SPA), Competitive Adaptive Reweighted Sampling (CARS), Artificial Neural network (ANN) and Boruta algorithms (BA) were used to select the important wavelengths for developing a prediction model for DMC (g/100 g). The PLSR-SPA-CARS model showed the most accurate prediction performances with a coefficient of determinations in calibration (R2cal) and prediction (R2pred) of 0.974 and 0.958, respectively, and low root mean square error (RMSEP) of 0.898 g/100 g. The distribution of DMC was visually represented by projecting the developed model to generate color chemical maps. This study resolves that NIR hyperspectral imaging can rapidly assess the DMC of fresh, intact yam tubers.

The Intersection Between E-Tax Administration, Sustainable Public Procurement and Sustainable Public Performance: A Review Conceptual Framework

Objective: This study centers on exploring, from the prisms of previous established studies, the influence of e-tax administration and sustainable public procurement on sustainable development and growth. This aims to find out how the employment and engagement of the intervention of e-taxation and sustainable public procurement could be harnessed to promote an overall sustainable development in a country, especially in an African context. It is on this note the study attempts to direct its focus, albeit partial, on the West African countries of Nigeria and Ghana. Theoretical framework: The study relies on the theories of Technology Acceptance Model, Stewardship Theory and Sustainable Development Theory. Technology Acceptance Model posits that technology usage promotes efficiency and transparency. By extension, e-taxation and sustainable public procurement will promote development since it relies on technology for its framework of operation. Method: This study engages a literature review approach, establishes empirical connections, and relates them with the current study. Also, theoretical cues were taken from established studies to explain the focus of the study. Result and conclusion: Following empirical and theoretical directions of previous studies, it is suggested that application of e-tax administration and sustainable public procurement frameworks could promote both social and economic development in a country, especially in Africa, Nigeria, and Ghana. Implication of the research: This study is significant in promoting the importance of sustainable framework in national growth and development. Apart from promoting sustainable development, e-taxation, and sustainable public procurement, when applied helps to curtail corruption and criminal leakages of resources which have been severally attributed to public management style in Africa. Also, the study brings to the fore the roadmap to justice, equitability and inclusion using the framework of e-taxation and sustainable public procurement. Originality/value: This study is distinct in the sense that it provides a pragmatic benefits of embracing sustainability approach, rather than eulogizing its intrinsic value alone. Sustainability intrinsic values include promoting inclusion and engendering environmental safety. However, this study goes further to showcase how sustainability in public procurement with the inoculation of e-taxation administration could stop corruption and abort resources leakages.

Child Rights Violation in Iweala’s Beasts of No Nation: A Study of Traumatic Experience of Child Soldier Agu

This paper examines various aspects of the life of protagonist Agu and other child soldiers evolved in the war in Uzodinma Iweala’s novel, Beasts of No Nation. The concern of this paper is to explore the after-effects of West African Freedom War on the life of children from the perspective of child soldiers. The effects of trauma on the ruined life of child soldiers in their post war life formulate their social status regarding future generation too. The question of child right during guerilla war in unnamed West African country is the major concern of the novel including other factors those have serious impact upon the lives of the people living in West Africa. The research tool used for research is traumatic effects for the development of psychology in life of people with reference to Cathy Caruth, Van der Kolk and Ruth Leys. The research methodology used for analysis is library research textual analysis. The major finding is that the study of the discourse of traumatic effects of child rights violations that Iweala builds up in Beasts of No Nation with the psychological nuances creating mental disorder in the life of child soldiers. It tries to do so through a spotlight on how the novel presents trauma as post-war life experience of children where the traumatic experience distorts life of children.&lt;/

Professional disrespect between doctors and nurses: implications for voicing concerns about threats to patient safety

Purpose Previous research has demonstrated that social-relational factors are instrumental to employee voice. An essential aspect of this relates to notions of respect or disrespect. Although nurses commonly report experiencing professional disrespect in their interaction with doctors, earlier studies have focused on how the professional status hierarchy and power imbalance between doctors and nurses hinder speaking up without considering the role of professional disrespect. Addressing this gap, we explore how professional disrespect in the doctor–nurse relationship in surgical teams influences the willingness of nurses to voice legitimate concerns about threats to patient safety.Design/methodology/approach Fifty-seven semi-structured interviews with nurses drawn from a range of specialities, ranks and surgical teams in three hospitals in a West African Country. In addition, two interviews with senior representatives from the National Registered Nurses and Midwifery Association (NRNMA) of the country were undertaken and analysed thematically with the aid of NVivo.Findings Disrespect is expressed in doctors’ condescending attitude towards nurses and under-valuing their contribution to care. This leads to safety concerns raised by nurses being ignored, downplayed or dismissed, with deleterious consequences for patient safety. Feeling disrespected further motivates nurses to consciously disguise silence amidst speech and engage in punitive silence aimed at making clinical practice difficult for doctors.Originality/value We draw attention to the detrimental effect of professional disrespect on patient safety in surgical environments. We contribute to employee voice and silence by showing how professional disrespect affects voice independently of hierarchy and conceptualise the notion of punitive silence.

An Undetected Expansion, Spread, and Burden of Chikungunya and Dengue Cocirculating Antibodies in Nigeria

Chikungunya and dengue are arboviral diseases transmitted by mosquitoes that have been increasingly recognized as public health concerns in Sub-Saharan Africa. Several studies conducted in Nigeria and other West African countries have revealed the seroprevalence burden and cocirculation of antibodies against mosquito-borne infections, thereby revealing a significant burden and clinical outcome complexities that have largely gone undetected. The current research study has important implications for disease surveillance, prevention strategies, and healthcare planning in Nigeria and other Sub-Saharan countries. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 871 outpatients and pregnant women from three regions of Nigeria. CHIKV and DENV immunoblot molecular diagnostic assays were used to analyze the serum samples for the presence of arboviral antibody serological markers IgG (Mikrogen Diagnostik, Germany) with DENV nonstructural protein 1 and DENV Equad and CHIKV virus-like particles (VLPs), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. A total of 871 participants were recruited from three geographical regions in Nigeria. Among them, 17.5% (152/871) were from Abia (southern Nigeria), 34.4% (300/871) were from Kaduna (northern Nigeria), and 48.1% (419/871) were from Nasarawa (central Nigeria). The ages of the participants ranged from 0 months to 80 years, with a mean age of 36.6 years. Of the 871 subjects, 71.0% (619/871) were female, and 29.0% (252/871) were male. The overall cohort detectable antibody seropositivity against CHIKV was 64.9% (565/871), 95% CI (61.74–68.06); DENV, 44.7% (389/871), 95% CI (41.41–47.99); and CHIKV-DENV cocirculation antibodies, 31.6% (95% CI 29–35). This study highlighted the unpredictably high seroprevalence, expansion, magnitude, and undetected burden of chikungunya and dengue in Nigeria.

Analysis of the Jurisprudence of Article 58 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Positions of West African Countries

Article 58 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) addresses the rights and obligations of States in the exclusive economic zones (EEZ) of other States. It guarantees third-party States the freedom of navigation, the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these activities. However, these rights must be exercised in accordance with the laws and regulations of the coastal State and the UNCLOS itself. The jurisprudential analysis of this article reveals various interpretations, often influenced by distinct national contexts and interests. Disputes related to the EEZ mainly focus on issues of maritime delimitation, the exploitation of natural resources, and the protection of the marine environment. West African countries, rich in marine resources, have diverse positions depending on their economic, security, and environmental interests. Some favor a strict application of their sovereign rights to maximize economic benefits and resource sustainability, while others advocate for regional cooperation to manage potential conflicts and strengthen maritime security. In summary, Article 58 of UNCLOS is essential for balancing the interests of coastal States and third-party States in the EEZ while allowing for the harmonious management of maritime resources and maritime security.

Prevalence of Counterfeit Fashion Goods in a West African Country: Crime in Perspective

ABSTRACT This study explores the prevalence of counterfeit fashion goods in a West African country within the context of crime, focusing on the perspectives of producers, distributors, and consumers. Drawing on rational choice theory, the research aims to understand the awareness, motivations and decision-making processes behind the production, distribution, and consumption of counterfeit fashion items in Ghana. A qualitative research approach was adopted, utilizing snowball sampling to gather data from eight producers, eight distributors, and 25 consumers of counterfeit fashion goods. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore participants’ awareness, perceptions, rational decisions and behaviors regarding counterfeit fashion goods. The findings underscore the need for stronger regulatory frameworks and public education initiatives to combat the proliferation of counterfeit fashion goods in Ghana, West Africa. Recommendations include implementing stricter laws and enforcement mechanisms, enhancing consumer awareness about the risks associated with counterfeit products, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders to address this complex issue effectively.

Exploratory study for implementing a Global Burden of Animal Diseases case study in Senegal.

Senegal is a West African country with both extensive animal production systems, representative of the environmental, economic and animal health constraints specific to the Sahel region, and thriving commercial poultry and dairy production. An exploratory study was conducted in Senegal between 2021 and 2022 as a prelude to a case study of the Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) programme. An overview of existing animal production systems as well as the main priorities and issues in animal health on a national level was developed. A national workshop gathering representatives from the livestock production and academic sectors took place in Dakar in June 2022 with the objective of jointly developing a case study. The participants prioritised pastoralist production systems for cattle and agropastoral systems for small ruminants for the application of the GBADs programme. Through a series of activities, the participants highlighted the health, environmental, economic and socio-political challenges surrounding these systems, all of which limit their contribution to the well-being of pastoralist households, consumers and other stakeholders. While Senegal has in the past hosted a large number of research and cooperative projects on these two livestock systems, participants noted difficulties in obtaining, centralising and harmonising the existing data. This exploratory study led to the funding of a focused case study of the agropastoral small-ruminant sector that was carried out in 2023 in partnership with national and international organisations.

Vaccine inequalities, hesitancy, and media-focused public health interventions in English-speaking West-African Countries

Background: Vaccine hesitancy poses a significant challenge to public health efforts in English-speaking West-African countries amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aims to examine the multifaceted factors contributing to vaccine hesitancy in the region, including issues of trust, misinformation, cultural beliefs, and access barriers. Methods: This study reviewed data from three African countries, Nigeria, Ghana, and the Gambia, to analyze attitudes towards vaccination. It also assessed variations in attitudes across these countries and compared them with attitudes in the western world. Qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to gather and analyze data on vaccine hesitancy and related factors. Results: The study found substantial variation in attitudes towards vaccination across the surveyed countries and compared to the western world. Factors contributing to vaccine hesitancy included historical injustices, misinformation, cultural beliefs, and access barriers such as limited healthcare infrastructure and vaccine supply constraints. Media-focused public health interventions were identified as crucial in addressing vaccine inequalities and enhancing vaccine acceptance. Conclusion: Overcoming vaccine hesitancy in West Africa requires tailored approaches that acknowledge and address historical injustices and inequities, emphasize culturally appropriate messaging, and utilize existing community infrastructure to deliver accurate information. Targeted communication strategies are essential to combat misinformation and enhance vaccine acceptance. By analyzing the intersection of vaccine hesitancy, media interventions, and public health challenges, this study underscores the need for comprehensive and community-engaged campaigns to promote vaccination and combat the spread of COVID-19 in West Africa.

Quantifying future climate extreme indices: implications for sustainable urban development in West Africa, with a focus on the greater Accra region

Climate change leading to Climate extremes in the twenty-first century is more evident in megacities across the world, especially in West Africa. The Greater Accra region is one of the most populated regions in West Africa. As a result, the region has become more susceptible to climate extremes such as floods, heatwaves, and droughts. The study employed the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6 models in simulating climate extreme indices under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway scenarios (SSPs) over West Africa between 1979 and 2059 as exemplified by the Greater Accra region. The study observed a generally weak drought in the historical period and expected to intensify especially under SSP585 in Greater Accra. For instance, continuous dry days (CDD) reveal an increasing trend under the SSPs. Similarly, the overall projected trend of CDD over West Africa reveals an increase signifying a more frequent and longer drought in the future. The flood indices revealed a surge in the intensity and duration of extreme precipitation events under the SSPs in the region. For instance, R99pTOT and Rx5days are expected to significantly increase under the SSPs with intensification under the SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585. A similar trend has been projected across West Africa, especially along the Guinean coast. The study foresees a gradual and intensifying rise in heatwave indices over the Greater Accra region. The warming and cooling indices reveal an increasing and decreasing trend respectively in the historical period as well as under the SSPs particularly within urban centers like Accra and Tema. Most West African countries are projected to observe more frequent warm days and nights with cold nights and days becoming less frequent. Expected effects of future climate extreme indices pose potential threats to the water, food, and energy systems as well as trigger recurrent floods and droughts over Greater Accra. The findings of the study are expected to inform climate policies and the nationally determined contribution of the Paris Agreement as well as address the sustainable development goal 11 (Sustainable cities) and 13 (Climate action) in West Africa.

Dietary diversity and associated factors among infants and young children in three West African countries.

Providing children healthy diversified diets is important for their optimal growth and development. The high prevalence of under-nourishment during the critical early life period is of serious concern in West Africa. We assessed the level of dietary diversity and associated factors for children aged 6-23 months in Côte d'Ivoire, Niger and Senegal. Prior 24 h dietary intake was assessed for 3,528 children (Côte d'Ivoire: N = 118; Niger: N = 763; Senegal: N = 2,647) using the Diet Quality Questionnaire survey tool administered to primary caregivers. Cluster random sampling was conducted for urban and rural areas in Niger and Senegal and simple random sampling was used in Côte d'Ivoire, where only rural households were selected. Survey data were analyzed to determine children's intake of items from eight food groups: breast milk; grains, roots, tubers and plantains; pulses, nuts and seeds; dairy products; flesh foods; eggs; vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; and other fruits and vegetables. Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) was assessed based on the consumption of ≥5 of the 8 food groups. In all countries, the majority of children were ≥ 12 months of age and from rural households. Children from poor/very poor households ranged from 32.4 to 41.9%. MDD prevalence was 54.2% in Côte d'Ivoire, 33.3% in Niger and 30.8% in Senegal. In all three countries, children 12-23 months had significantly higher consumption of six of the food groups, compared to those 6-11 months, and children ≥12 months had a higher likelihood of MDD, compared to infants, in Niger (aOR = 4.25; 95% CI: 2.46, 7.36) and Senegal (aOR = 2.69; 95% CI: 2.15, 3.35). MDD prevalence was higher among children in urban, compared to rural, areas in Niger (p = 0.020) and Senegal (p < 0.001) and significantly higher in the wealthiest, compared to poorest, households. This study suggests most young children in Côte d'Ivoire, Niger and Senegal are not receiving an adequately diversified diet, with a reliance on starchy staples and lower intake of high-quality protein sources. Our results highlight socio-economic barriers to attaining dietary diversity in these settings and stress the urgent and continuing need for investments in strategies that support optimal complementary feeding practices.

Not for us? Vocational training in the social and policy space in Sierra Leone

PurposeThis paper explores the attractiveness of TVET in Sierra Leone, a post-conflict West African country. It aims to unpack structural factors which contribute to the low repute of TVET.Design/methodology/approachThe paper uses qualitative interviews with employers, government and third sector organisations, focus group discussions with young Sierra Leoneans and analysis of key government policy documents. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data, and the empirical analysis is grounded in Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making and Social Cognitive Career Theory. The paper is interdisciplinary, drawing on literature from economics, psychology, political science and development studies.FindingsThe paper argues that TVET is in low repute in Sierra Leone owing to low prioritisation by the national government in terms of policy focus, budgetary allocations and provision of training facilities; the proliferation and continuation of a post-war style of TVET programmes by development partners which initially targeted ex-combatants and thus carry reputational baggage; and colonial legacies of preferences for university education and white-collar jobs.Originality/valueThe research contributes to the academic and policy discourse by providing new empirical insights from an under-studied country (and region), and arguably one where evidence-based policy is much needed.

Toward sustainable energy transition: Unveiling the synergies of democracy, energy justice, and structural adjustment on emissions in West Africa

AbstractThe transition to sustainable energy is crucial for climate change mitigation, yet achieving net‐zero emissions remains challenging. While structural adjustments away from carbon‐intensive industries can reduce emissions, such transformations must be underpinned by democratic governance and equitable clean energy access (energy justice). Disappointedly, the interplay among structural change, democracy, and energy justice in mitigating emissions has received insufficient attention. This study examines this nexus among 15 West African countries using the Driscoll–Kraay standard estimator. Our findings indicate that democracy, structural adjustment, and energy justice significantly reduce carbon emissions, while globalization, urbanization, and international trade increase it. We recommend that governments in these nations should promote economic diversification into low‐carbon industries, ensure energy justice through electrification and clean cooking initiatives, enhance transparency and public participation in environmental decision‐making, and facilitate multi‐stakeholder dialogs on sustainable practices.

Histological study of the sex ratio and reproductive cycle of the mangrove oyster Crassostrea tulipa (Lamarck, 1819) in the Saloum Delta (Senegal)

The mangrove oyster Crassostrea tulipa has considerable socio-economic value in Senegal, as in many other West African countries. To better understand its biology, the objective of this study was to determine the sex ratio and the evolution of gonadal development stages of oyster populations in the Saloum Delta. To this end, a monthly sampling of 30 oysters between 34.19 mm and 96.68 mm height was carried out between January 2021 and January 2022. The part of the flesh that encloses the gonads was removed and fixed using Davidson's solution. After dehydration, paraffining and inclusion of the materials, 7 μm thick sections were made using a microtome. These sections were stained with Haris’s hematoxylin and eosin and the slides were observed under an optical microscope (Olympus BX41 microscope).The results showed a predominance of females over males, with a sex ratio of 1 in 2.85. The results also revealed that reproduction was continuous over the year and that spawning was asynchronous: Individuals at the spawning stage were more frequent in the warm season. These results will contribute to a better management of natural stocks and to improve oyster farming.

Abysmal Hike in Global Cocoa Price and its Implications on Cocoa Plantations in Tamil Nadu - A Critical Analysis

Cocoa belonging to the family Sterculiaceae has its origin in South America and later it had spread to Europe, Africa and Asia. In Tamil Nadu, cocoa is accommodated as an intercrop in arecanut and coconut plantations especially in South India. But over the past few years, the acreage under cocoa showed a steady decline and the area currently hovers around 5,000 ha especially concentrated in Coimbatore, Theni and Kanyakumari districts of the state. Price volatility is the key player in culminating cocoa plantations in the state. But the recent global shortage of cocoa associated with climatic vagaries and biotic stress like swollen shoot virus and black pod disease in the leading cocoa producers of the world has prompted a positive note in the price of cocoa beans in India. Government policies like ban on deforestation and engaging child labourers for farming and underinvestment in cocoa gardens in the West African countries also added hue to the problem. A record high of ten fold increase in price was observed during the last quarter of 2023 and first quarter of 2024. According to the International Cocoa Organization, global cocoa supply will decline by almost 11% over the 2023/2024 season. Global price has a direct impact on cocoa plantations in the state of Tamil Nadu as many cocoa orchards were cleared due to the lack of remunerative price. But the abysmal price hike in the global front has invited the farmers to rejuvenate the abandoned cocoa plantations and bring new area under cultivation in Tamil Nadu as price was the key player in giving up the crop during 2010s by the farmers. Abysmal hike in global cocoa price has brought a ray of hope for the expanding acreage of cocoa in the state of Tamil Nadu.