West African Community Research Articles

Intersecting Archives: Intertextuality and the Early West African Photographer

This paper examines practices of intertextuality in the dispersion of images by some selected early West African photographers1 who utilized dry plate technologies in the late nineteenth to early twentieth century. There is a burgeoning literature on early African photographers but little attention has been devoted to their dialectical relations with each other or the modes of intertextuality that operated between photographers. Photography was at the center of the visual fabrication of localized West African modernities and imaginaries2 during the second half of the nineteenth century. The technology, initially patented and made publicly available in 1839 in France, was taken up in Africa from the 1840s onwards and offered innovative modes of representation (Szarkowski 1966:1–6, Rajchman 1988:88–117). Its points of entry into West Africa, as elsewhere on the continent, were multiple (Viditz-Ward 1987:510–18, Yarak 1995:9–11, Haney 2010:24–27), and initially images were mostly produced as single, unique daguerreotypes on a polished silvered surface, usually sealed under glass.3 The daguerreotype was, however, paralleled by the invention and publication of the calotype process in Britain by Henry Fox Talbot in 1841. This paper-based negative-positive process allowed for unlimited photographic reproduction. Despite these advantages, it did not initially have the commercial success of the daguerreotype.4 Photographic technologies were diverse, rapidly changing, and developed throughout the nineteenth century. Such innovations, whether temporary or long-lasting, were imported into West Africa shortly after their availability in European or American markets. The daguerreotype persisted in Africa until the end of the nineteenth century, as exemplified in an advertisement of the Sierra Leone Weekly News (1884) where Shadrack A. St. John (identified as a photographer of African descent by Viditz-Ward, 1987:512) offered an improved daguerreotype process as well as the subsequent Gelatine Instaneous (dry plate) process.5 The adoption and popularity of the wet collodion glass plate process (1851 onwards) was quickly adopted by professional photographers and contributed to the burgeoning of professional studios around the world (Pols 2002:11). Its dissemination and subsequent refinement as the dry glass plate process (1870s onwards) allowed for the widespread use of the negative transfer technology pioneered by Talbot with its capacity for faster speeds, sharper, clearer images, and unlimited multiple mechanical reproduction. Moreover, as Walter Benjamin famously noted (1968:211–44), this technological capacity meant that each individual production of a given image had the potential to be constituted within a range of differing contexts that transformed their significances. For professional photographers, in particular, this offered the possibility of developing an archive of images, each of which could be repeatedly sold to a range of clients to maximize earnings. Indeed, by 1893 the Gold Coast-born photographer Neils Walwin Holm, who had settled in Lagos Colony in 1886, identified some eighty professional and amateur photographers in West Africa who were using the dry plate photographic technology (Holm 1893b:211). Itinerant commercial European and African photographers travelled the shipping routes in search of patrons and to build up image stock, and in so doing developed numerous markets for photographic services among diverse West African communities. This was greatly aided by the innovation of regular steamship services from the United Kingdom to the Niger Delta region in 1852, with increased numbers of destination ports along the West African coast (Lynn 1992:421–25). With the importation of the newer photographic technologies of dry (and prior wet) plate photography and multiple image production, West African photographers,

Change and variation in family religious language policy in a West African Muslim community

This article examines variation in family religious language policy in a Muslim community in West Africa. Taking an ethnographically grounded case study approach, I situate families’ choices with regards to their children’s religious (language) education within the larger linguistic, social, and cultural context, focusing on new influences on Islamic education and Arabic learning in the community and the wider region during a period of Islamic resurgence. I examine families’ religious education choices with particular attention to what they mean for children’s Arabic learning and what they say about families’ orientations toward Arabic. This article is based on a language socialization study of seven young Fulbe children into three languages (Fulfulde, Arabic, and French) at home, Qur’anic school, and public school in northern Cameroon. Changes in the religious, linguistic, and educational landscape of the region are reflected in the variation within and among four focal families with respect to how they organized and envisioned their children’s religious study and Arabic language learning. In presenting ethnographic research conducted at the intersection of religious language policy, language education policy, and family language policy, my goal is to further our understanding of how private choices are connected to forces in the public sphere, giving rise to changes in the ways faith, language, and learning are practiced and conceptualized.

Late-life depression: Burden, severity and relationship with social support dimensions in a West African community

ObjectivesThe occurrence of depression in old age is often linked with grave consequences. The purpose of this study is to investigate the burden of depression and its relationship with perceived social support among the elderly in a West African community setting. MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, participants made up of 350 elders aged 60 years and above were selected through multi-stage random sampling technique. All participants were interviewed with designed questionnaire, multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS) and Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) to elicit socio-demographic profile, social support and depressive psychopathology respectively. ResultsThe participants were largely females (52.9%) and their mean age was 68.8±7.3 years. A little above one-quarter (26.4%) had depressive episode, and mild severity was preponderant. Low level of social support was associated with depression (χ2=8.418, p=0.004); especially low social supports from significant others (χ2=3.989, p=0.046) and family members (χ2=4.434, p=0.035). Similarly, severity of depression in the elderly correlated negatively with availability of social support from significant others (χ2=5.495, p=0.019) and family members (χ2=5.149, p=0.023). ConclusionConsidering the burden of depression in this elderly population and the influential roles of social support especially from family and significant others on depression; strengthening of informal social support and formal social support for the elders is advocated. In addition, design of community based geriatric mental health with social services and articulation of public policy to address old age needs are implied.

Identification of the Mycobacterium ulcerans protein MUL_3720 as a promising target for the development of a diagnostic test for Buruli ulcer.

Buruli ulcer (BU) caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans is a devastating skin disease, occurring mainly in remote West African communities with poor access to health care. Early case detection and subsequent antibiotic treatment are essential to counteract the progression of the characteristic chronic ulcerative lesions. Since the accuracy of clinical BU diagnosis is limited, laboratory reconfirmation is crucial. However, currently available diagnostic techniques with sufficient sensitivity and specificity require infrastructure and resources only accessible at a few reference centres in the African endemic countries. Hence, the development of a simple, rapid, sensitive and specific point-of-care diagnostic tool is one of the major research priorities for BU. In this study, we have identified a previously unknown M. ulcerans protein, MUL_3720, as a promising target for antigen capture-based detection assays. We show that MUL_3720 is highly expressed by M. ulcerans and has no orthologs in other prevalent pathogenic mycobacteria. We generated a panel of anti-MUL_3720 antibodies and used them to confirm a cell wall location for MUL_3720. These antibodies could also specifically detect M. ulcerans in infected human tissue samples as well as in lysates of infected mouse footpads. A bacterial 2-hybrid screen suggested a potential role for MUL_3720 in cell wall biosynthesis pathways. Finally, we demonstrate that a combination of MUL_3720 specific antibody reagents in a sandwich-ELISA format has sufficient sensitivity to make them suitable for the development of antigen capture-based diagnostic tests for BU.

The walking Qur'an: Islamic education, embodied knowledge, and history in West Africa

Spanning a thousand years of history--and bringing the story to the present through ethnographic fieldwork in Senegal, Gambia, and Mauritania--Rudolph Ware documents the profound significance of Qur'an schools for West African Muslim communities. Such schools peacefully brought Islam to much of the region, becoming striking symbols of Muslim identity. Ware shows how in Senegambia the schools became powerful channels for African resistance during the eras of the slave trade and colonization. While illuminating the past, Ware also makes signal contributions to understanding contemporary Islam by demonstrating how the schools' epistemology of embodiment gives expression to classical Islamic frameworks of learning and knowledge.Today, many Muslims and non-Muslims find West African methods of Qur'an schooling puzzling and controversial. In fascinating detail, Ware introduces these practices from the viewpoint of the practitioners, explicating their emphasis on educating the whole human being as if to remake it as a living replica of the Qur'an. From this perspective, the transference of knowledge in core texts and rituals is literally embodied in people, helping shape them--like the Prophet of Islam--into vital bearers of the word of God.

Eating alone or together? Commensality among Ghanaians in London

Eating together, or commensality, signifies unity and sharing in most cultural contexts. The concern for the fate of meals is associated with the apparent descent of shared family meals as a central element of family life, around which family is reproduced, suggesting a loosening of family ties and an upheaval of social life in general. Yet, latest research into and writing about commensality has been mainly on Western populations. This paper broadens the perspective by examining the social context of eating in a diasporic West African community. It compares eating arrangements among Ghanaians in London with their past practices prior to migration. While commensality is of essence among many ethnic minority communities, the Ghanaian family meal is possible without company, and in line with kinship and household structures and patterns in Ghana. The lack of concern for shared family meals enables the unity of family and community in the diasporic community. The notion of the ‘family meal’ appears to be ethnocentrically Western.

Non-conventional humanitarian interventions on Ebola outbreak crisis in West Africa: health, ethics and legal implications.

Due to the lack of Ebola outbreak early warning alert, preparedness, surveillance and response systems, the most deadly, complex and largest ever seen Ebola war has been devastating West African communities. The unparalleled Ebola tsunami has prompted interrogations into, and uncertainties about, the effectiveness and efficiency of national, regional and international community’s illed- responses using conventional humanitarian control and containment approaches and methods. The late humanitarian and local non-government organisations emergency responses and challenges to curb transmission dynamics and stop the ongoing spread in the Ebola outbreak in West Africa have led to an unprecedented toll of 14,413 reported Ebola cases in eight countries since the outbreak began, with 5,177 reported deaths including 571 health-care workers and 325 died as 14 November 2014. These indications the need of further evaluation of monitoring as substantial proportion of infections outside the context of Ebola epicentres, Ebola health centres treatment and care, infection prevention and control quality assurance checks in these countries. At the same time, exhaustive efforts should target ensuring an sufficient supply of optimal personal protective equipment (PPE) to all Ebola treatment facilities, along with the provision of training and relevant guidelines to limit to the minimum possible level of risk. The continent hosts a big proportion of the world’s wealth, yet its people live in abject poverty, with governments unable to feed and govern them effectively, and who are condemned to endure even darker moments with the Ebola outbreak in West Africa. Institutionalisation of practical and operational non-conventional emergency response models efficient health systems, and tailored programmes can clearly support to prevent, control and eventually stamp out Ebola geo-distribution in addition to population mental health services that are requisite to address the massive range of the health, socio-psychological and economic consequences during and post Ebola associated crises. There is a critical need for a more pragmatic and robust scientific approach to transform and re-orient the huge natural and human resource potentials towards achieving universal coverage, the 2015–2030 Millennium Developing Goals (MDGs), sustainable growth and development in Africa.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/2049-9957-3-42) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

High dermatophyte contamination levels in hairdressing salons of a West African suburban community.

Tinea capitis is a dermatophyte infection of scalp is commonly spread by currently infected patients, asymptomatic carriers or by fomites, such as hairdressing tools. However, studies on the risk factors of Tinea capitis remain scarce. The aim ofthis study was to evaluate the dermatophytes contamination level of the hairdressing tools to which hairdressing salon customers are exposed in Sirakoro-Méguétana, a suburb of Bamako, the capital city of Mali. A total of 41 hairdressing tools were sampled in five hairdressing salons. Two anthropophilic dermatophytes species, Microsporum audouinii (53.3%) and Trichophyton soudanense (46.7%), were cultured from 30 (73.2%) samples. This first study, addressing hairdressing salons dermatophyte contamination, revealed a strikingly high contamination of hairdressing tools with dermatophyte propagules, which exposes hairdressing salons customers to an important dermatophytosis risk. The sterilisation of hairdressing tools is central to preventing dermatophytoses spreading. Appropriate community information and hairdressers training should be implemented in this view.

The rise and fall of malaria in a west African rural community, Dielmo, Senegal, from 1990 to 2012: a 22 year longitudinal study

A better understanding of the effect of malaria control interventions on vector and parasite populations, acquired immunity, and burden of the disease is needed to guide strategies to eliminate malaria from highly endemic areas. We monitored and analysed the changes in malaria epidemiology in a village community in Senegal, west Africa, over 22 years. Between 1990 and 2012, we did a prospective longitudinal study of the inhabitants of Dielmo, Senegal, to identify all episodes of fever and investigate the relation between malaria host, vector, and parasite. Our study included daily medical surveillance with systematic parasite detection in individuals with fever. We measured parasite prevalence four times a year with cross-sectional surveys. We monitored malaria transmission monthly with night collection of mosquitoes. Malaria treatment changed over the years, from quinine (1990-94), to chloroquine (1995-2003), amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (2003-06), and finally artesunate plus amodiaquine (2006-12). Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) were introduced in 2008. We monitored 776 villagers aged 0-101 years for 2 378 150 person-days of follow-up. Entomological inoculation rate ranged from 142·5 infected bites per person per year in 1990 to 482·6 in 2000, and 7·6 in 2012. Parasite prevalence in children declined from 87% in 1990 to 0·3 % in 2012. In adults, it declined from 58% to 0·3%. We recorded 23 546 fever episodes during the study, including 8243 clinical attacks caused by Plasmodium falciparum, 290 by Plasmodium malariae, and 219 by Plasmodium ovale. Three deaths were directly attributable to malaria, and two to severe adverse events of antimalarial drugs. The incidence of malaria attacks ranged from 1·50 attacks per person-year in 1990 to 2·63 in 2000, and to only 0·046 in 2012. The greatest changes were associated with the replacement of chloroquine and the introduction of ITNs. Malaria control policies combining prompt treatment of clinical attacks and deployment of ITNs can nearly eliminate parasite carriage and greatly reduce the burden of malaria in populations exposed to intense perennial malaria transmission. The choice of drugs seems crucial. Rapid decline of clinical immunity allows rapid detection and treatment of novel infections and thus has a key role in sustaining effectiveness of combining artemisinin-based combination therapy and ITNs despite increasing pyrethroid resistance. Pasteur Institutes of Dakar and Paris, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, and French Ministry of Cooperation.

The Economy of West African Dance in Italy

Over the past decade, so-called African dance has become increasingly popular in Italy, growing in tandem with local West African diasporic communities and the national concern over immigration. Although the circulation of African dance provides West African migrants with an important form of self-identification and subsistence, it often revolves around problematic discourses rooted on the myth and romance with the primitive. Constructing and capitalizing on the fetishization of black bodies, African dance mobilizes complex economies of desire that rest on an orientalist fascination with the Other. While these economies reify racist stereotypes, they also enable significant communities of knowledge and interracial encounters.

Integrating Western and non-Western cultural expressions to further cultural and creative tourism: a case study

The term cultural industries was coined more than half a century ago, but at the beginning of the twenty-first century, the broader concept of creative industries, covering a wide range of cultural, design and digital activity, captured the imagination of public policy-makers at national and city levels. Paralleling these developments has been the recognition of the phenomenon of cultural tourism and, more recently, the emergence of the idea of creative tourism, i.e. tourism programmes designed to engage tourists actively in cultural activity. This paper presents a case study of a creative tourism event which took place in 2012 in the city of Manchester in the UK. The festival, which celebrated West African culture, utilised existing cultural institutions of the city and drew on the talents of local and visiting members of West African community to engage not only tourists but also indigenous and Black and minority ethnic (BME) residents of Manchester in a variety of cultural activities. It thus used the focus of creative tourism to seek to foster community and cultural development as well as tourism.

Nearer, My God, to Thee

Nearer, My God, to Thee

Intimate Partner Violence among West African Immigrants

Although the number of African immigrants arriving to the United States has increased significantly, there has been little investigation regarding their experiences of intimate partner violence or coping strategies. This study used focus groups and individual interviews to explore intimate partner violence among 32 heterosexual West African immigrants. Results suggest that although cultural expectations influence their coping strategies, West African–born men and women face different realities, with women reporting multiple instances of abuse and a sense of frustration with the existing options for assistance. Although participants discussed multilevel support structures within the immediate West African community to address intimate partner violence, all of these options maintained a gender hierarchy, leaving women dissatisfied. Challenges and barriers to partner violence resolution and coping strategies are identified. Results are examined in terms of their implications for addressing the needs of this underserved population. Implications for future research and services are discussed and highlighted.

<em>Danny Hoffman. The War Machines: Young Men and Violence in Sierra Leone and Liberia</em>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011.

Reviewed by: The War Machines: Young Men and Violence in Sierra Leone and Liberia by Danny Hoffman Mary H. Moran Danny Hoffman. The War Machines: Young Men and Violence in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011. 320 pp. Photographs. $24.95 (paperback), $89.95 (library cloth). Events of the last two decades have done little to disrupt colonial-era images of Africa as a site of disorder and violent excess. Western imaginaries shaped by reports from Somalia, Rwanda, Darfur, and the collapsing states of West and Central Africa leave analysts little space, as Danny Hoffman notes, from which to construct more nuanced, complex, and sympathetic portraits of young men at war: “Whatever one might say or write in an effort to humanize young male militia fighters in Africa, the visual image of black male bodies with weapons carries a demonizing baggage that for many viewers may be inescapable” (p. xx). Bringing to this project his background as a photojournalist, Hoffman sets out to argue that rather than isolated pockets of primitivism, these conflicts are inextricably connected to global processes of labor recruitment and deployment. Situating his work within the theoretical framework of the French philosophers Deleuze and Guattari (1983, 1987), Hoffman uses the idea of the “war machine” as a set of relations, practices, and modes of operating that emerges to contest the “interiorizing” practices of the modern state. Not always violent in its initial forms, the war machine consists of efforts in community self-defense, local resistance, and refusal to submit to state-sponsored processes [End Page 182] of extraction and alienation. Sadly, these efforts are too often “captured and reterritorialized” (p. 16) and it is this process, which he observed closely in his travels with the kamajors (quasi-traditional hunters and community defenders) of Sierra Leone and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) militia in Liberia, that Hoffman finds most compelling. Also inspired by Achille Mbembe’s idea of hyperproductivity in African urban spaces, Hoffman avoids reducing the wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone either to primordial or patrimonial outbursts of unchanging “tradition” or to purely economic “resource curse” struggles—perspectives that have defined the literature for some time now. Rather, he globalizes events taking place in remote West African military outposts and urban squatter communities, linking them to neoliberal rationalities and economies of scale that also drive the “outsourcing” of security services in places like Iraq and Afghanistan. The result is an understanding of violence itself as a product of human labor, rather than as a symptom of some other condition. He manages to make this argument without losing sight of the humanity and pathos of the young men caught up in this productive logic, whose bodies and futures are consumed by the processes he documents. Using connections forged during his days as a journalist, Hoffman was able to carry out long-term ethnographic fieldwork with several different armed groups in the Mano River region and, more important, to follow them through the UN-led processes of Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) that supposedly “ended” the wars. Even as his informants were “demobilized” (some with a significant package of cash payments and vouchers for educational and vocational training) in one place, many were shifting their attention to other conflicts in other countries, looking for new employers in need of their skills. Using their military and entrepreneurial training to slip through porous international borders, some veterans specialized in the recruitment and “packaging” of new “rebel groups” for hire. Others, not so fortunate, found themselves adrift in the aftermath of devastated postwar societies without the financial rewards and security they had expected. Hoffman’s detailed observations of young men and women trying to build adult lives in an abandoned hotel in Freetown or on the streets of Monrovia beautifully illustrate his arguments, following Marx, that late capitalism has reached the point of “real subsumption,” in which “there seem to be no relations not organized according to the exchange-value-producing regimen, when there is no outside to capital” (p. 107). Violence has become a commodity that circulates in common with diamonds, guns, and cash, “its value . . . translated into political subjectivity and masculine identity...

Ecology of a typical West African Sudanian savannah rodent community

AbstractThe small‐mammal community of a typical Sudanian savannah area of south‐eastern Senegal was studied by way of intensive sampling at the beginning (July) and at the end (November) of the rainy season. A total of 5931 trapnights and 200 pitfallnights yielded 767 small mammals, including 757 rodents of 12 species, as well as a few shrews and hedgehogs. Accumulation curve indicated that the rodent community was well sampled. Murine rodents were far more numerous than gerbilline rodents, and among them, Mastomys erythroleucus was the dominant species, being caught in high numbers in all habitats. Arvicanthis niloticus and Praomys daltoni were also abundant, followed by Mastomys natalensis and Gerbilliscus guineae. Abundances were high at the beginning of the rainy season when reproductive activity was low in all species. At the end of the rainy season, murine rodents were actively involved in reproduction, while gerbilline rodents were at their lowest density. Significant changes in relative abundance among habitats (including human dwellings) were observed between periods in some species, suggesting seasonal trends in habitat preferences. This may help species coexistence in this species‐rich rodent community, in an area likely to be submitted to significant habitat alterations in the years to come.

Taarab or songs of abuse?: verbal duels in east Africa

For long, it has been believed that song of abuse, as it has come to be called, is a preserve of west African communities. Early inroads into this oral subgenre were made by scholars who, more often than not, hailed from Ghana and Nigeria. A false impression of its locus was created to the effect that it was region-specific. This paper is an attempt to illustrate the pervasiveness of this verbal art, in disguised forms among the Swahili of East African. Drawing illustrative material from communities inhabiting the larger east African region of the continent, I argue that songs of abuse are part and parcel of the Swahili and Bantu groups such as Abagusii's oral repertoire serving crucial expressive needs of the community. Considering that most art in Africa has always been conceived in functional terms, I posit mipasho as a creative art with aesthetic and social purposes – falling in a form of popular entertainment called mashindano, an organised competitive event. A survey of Swahili poetry and oral repertoire reveals that taarab, a form of sung poetry, clearly serves the purpose songs of abuse did in west Africa. If art or poetry is a vent for pent-up emotions, and a channel for powerfully overflowing emotions/feelings, then this art forms an important avenue for individual or groups. The paper foregrounds these continuities and regional-specific elements of this art, in particular, i) the competitive or conflictual spirit, ii) it is taking new shape in contemporary times, iii) it tends to be a preserve of women, Specifically, I interrogate the genre's characteristic features, the aesthetic codes and conventions through which it generates meaning and the general social context of performance and interpretation. I explore not just the forms it takes, but also examine its contexts, formulaic usage of linguistic resources and the trend it has taken in contemporary times. Finally, and most importantly I will make a comparative analysis with the West Africa variant.

Molecular Epidemiology of Endemic Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 in a Rural Community in Guinea-Bissau

BackgroundHuman T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1) infection causes lethal adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) and severely debilitating HTLV-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) in up to 5% of infected adults. HTLV-1 is endemic in parts of Africa and the highest prevalence in West Africa (5%) has been reported in Caio, a rural area in the North-West of Guinea-Bissau. It is not known which HTLV-1 variants are present in this community. Sequence data can provide insights in the molecular epidemiology and help to understand the origin and spread of HTLV-1.ObjectiveTo gain insight into the molecular diversity of HTLV-1 in West Africa.MethodsHTLV-1 infected individuals were identified in community surveys between 1990–2007. The complete Long Terminal Repeat (LTR) and p24 coding region of HTLV-1 was sequenced from infected subjects. Socio-demographic data were obtained from community census and from interviews performed by fieldworkers. Phylogenetic analyses were performed to characterize the relationship between the Caio HTLV-1 and HTLV-1 from other parts of the world.ResultsLTR and p24 sequences were obtained from 72 individuals (36 LTR, 24 p24 only and 12 both). Consistent with the low evolutionary change of HTLV-1, many of the sequences from unrelated individuals showed 100% nucleotide identity. Most (45 of 46) of the LTR sequences clustered with the Cosmopolitan HTLV-1 subtype 1a, subgroup D (1aD). LTR and p24 sequences from two subjects were divergent and formed a significant cluster with HTLV-1 subtype 1g, and with the most divergent African Simian T-cell Lymphotropic Virus, Tan90.ConclusionsThe Cosmopolitan HTLV-1 1aD predominates in this rural West African community. However, HTLV-1 subtype 1g is also present. This subtype has not been described before in West Africa and may be more widespread than previously thought. These data are in line with the hypothesis that multiple monkey-to-man zoonotic events are contributing to HTLV-1 diversity.

Limits of health education: Barriers to oral rehydration use among Ghanaian mothers

Childhood diarrhea is one of the leading causes of childhood morbidity and mortality in West African communities. In the Ejisu-Juaben region of Ghana, oral rehydration solution (ORS) sachets are provided by the district hospital by nurses working in surrounding communities and by community drugstores to combat diarrhea and replenish electrolytes that have been depleted as a result of diarrhea. Previous research from the Ejisu-Juaben region, part of the Ashanti region, found that 92% of mothers had heard of ORS and 86.6% could describe its preparation, but only 28.4% had used ORS to treat their child’s last episode of diarrhea (Kendell et al., 2009). The purpose of this study is to determine potential barriers to the use of ORS in these communities. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 91 mothers, eight public health nurses, five community volunteers and five drugstore owners in the Ejisu-Juaben region. Additionally, focus groups were held with mothers. Mothers knew where to obtain ORS, could correctly demonstrate its preparation and identify it as an effective treatment. The primary reasons given for not using ORS were its expense and use of alternative treatments. The latter includes herbs boiled in water, herbal enemas, sand enemas and innocuous foods; the primary reasons for choosing these treatments over ORS include availability of home remedies and adherence to tradition. While public health education is vital to improving overall health in developing countries, education does not always predict compliance with medically proven health practices. This is particularly true when cost and tradition are barriers to behavioral change. A diarrhea treatment that bridges traditional and modern methods while mitigating cost barriers could potentially increase use, thereby decreasing

<em>Collective Memory Practices as Tools for Reconciliation:</em> Perspectives from Liberation and Cultural Psychology

Many African communities have appropriated the international practice of “Truth and Reconciliation Commissions” (TRCs) as a means to construct a shared sense of collective memory, identity, and purpose in the aftermath of violent conflict. In this paper, we consider alternative forms of collective memory practices that might better suit the task of reconciliation in postconflict West African communities. Drawing upon the theoretical perspective of cultural psychology, we first identify the conceptual foundations of canonical TRC practice in particular Christian traditions that valorize revelation, truth, confession, and forgiveness. We then propose alternative practices of collective memory that have conceptual foundations in local practices or traditions that recommend secrecy (Shaw 2000), directed forgetting (Cole 2001), and other forms of interpretative silence. Drawing upon the theoretical perspective of liberation psychology, we note the ways in which conventional TRC practice, by focusing attention on acts of wrongdoing within communities, can reproduce silence about broader political and economic injustices that produce ripe conditions for conflict. We then propose alternative practices of collective memory to illuminate the role that local elites and citizens of rich nations play in the ongoing reproduction of unjust postcolonial conditions that can lead to conflict situations within communities.

HTLV-1 and HIV-2 Infection Are Associated with Increased Mortality in a Rural West African Community

BackgroundSurvival of people with HIV-2 and HTLV-1 infection is better than that of HIV-1 infected people, but long-term follow-up data are rare. We compared mortality rates of HIV-1, HIV-2, and HTLV-1 infected subjects with those of retrovirus-uninfected people in a rural community in Guinea-Bissau.MethodsIn 1990, 1997 and 2007, adult residents (aged ≥15 years) were interviewed, a blood sample was drawn and retroviral status was determined. An annual census was used to ascertain the vital status of all subjects. Cox regression analysis was used to estimate mortality hazard ratios (HR), comparing retrovirus-infected versus uninfected people.ResultsA total of 5376 subjects were included; 197 with HIV-1, 424 with HIV-2 and 325 with HTLV-1 infection. The median follow-up time was 10.9 years (range 0.0–20.3). The crude mortality rates were 9.6 per 100 person-years of observation (95% confidence interval 7.1-12.9) for HIV-1, 4.1 (3.4–5.0) for HIV-2, 3.6 (2.9–4.6) for HTLV-1, and 1.6 (1.5–1.8) for retrovirus-negative subjects. The HR comparing the mortality rate of infected to that of uninfected subjects varied significantly with age. The adjusted HR for HIV-1 infection varied from 4.0 in the oldest age group (≥60 years) to 12.7 in the youngest (15–29 years). The HR for HIV-2 infection varied from 1.2 (oldest) to 9.1 (youngest), and for HTLV-1 infection from 1.2 (oldest) to 3.8 (youngest).ConclusionsHTLV-1 infection is associated with significantly increased mortality. The mortality rate of HIV-2 infection, although lower than that of HIV-1 infection, is also increased, especially among young people.