West Africa Sub-region Research Articles

Ungoverned Spaces and the Challenges of Counterterrorism in West Africa Sub-Region

Ungoverned Spaces and the Challenges of Counterterrorism in West Africa Sub-Region

Being My Neighbours’ Keeper: Interrogating the Management of the Terrorism–Migration Nexus in West Africa Sub-Region

Cooperation among neighbouring countries is critical for managing security threats like terrorism and migration. Despite their proximity, states often struggle to cooperate for various reasons, including a lack of solidarity, which can harm regional peace and stability. This study uses qualitative research to examine West African nations’ cooperation in combating Islamist terrorism and aiding affected individuals across borders. Applying regional security complex theory and transnationalism, we assess how terrorism-driven migration impacts regional security, peace and development, highlighting cooperation challenges. This study redefines ‘neighbour’ in international relations, emphasising proactive international solidarity and shared responsibility to address insecurity.

Psychosocial work factors affecting safety incidents of long-distance bus drivers in Ghana: Mediating role of psychological well-being

BackgroundImproving psychosocial work environment of long-distance bus drivers is essential for their psychological well-being and on-the-road safety. Despite the importance of the work environment of bus drivers, it has received little research attention in Ghana and other developing nations. Hence, this study examined the influence of psychosocial work factors (job demands and job resources) on safety incidents of long-distance bus drivers and how psychological well-being mediates this association. MethodsThis cross-sectional survey sampled 7315 long-distance bus drivers who commute from the cities of Accra and Tema to other parts of Ghana and other cities in the West Africa sub-region. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to test four hypotheses. FindingsThe results suggest that job demands and job resources have direct association with safety incidents of the long-distance bus drivers. The psychological well-being of the bus drivers played a partial mediation role in the association between psychosocial work factors and safety incidents of the drivers. ConclusionThe job demand-resource model provides a useful model for understanding the impact of the work environment on driving performance among these long-distance bus drivers. Providing the drivers with high job control and supportive work culture can equip and support them to value the critical roles they play in the transport sector. Managers of bus transport companies and individual bus owners should implement effective communication strategies like the bottom-up communication approach, conduct periodic assessments to identify and address drivers’ precarious work conditions, create safety on the road, and reduce crashes and associated fatalities.

Bias-corrected NASA data for aridity index estimation over tropical climates in Ghana, West Africa

Study regionGhana, West Africa. Study focusNASA's Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource (NASA POWER) satellite-based reanalysis products are used for estimating the aridity index (AI) in Ghana, West Africa. The NASA estimates are compared and bias-corrected with temperature-based potential evapotranspiration estimates and rainfall data from 22 synoptic climate stations. The cumulative distribution function (CDF) matching technique was used for bias correction New Hydrological Insights for the regionThe results indicated a previous 36% over-estimation of arid conditions in dryland climates and an under-estimation of wetland climate regions by the NASA POWER data compared with the station-based estimation. Post bias-correction, the satellite-based estimates showed substantial improvements, as evidenced by a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.87. The rectified data suggests that with accurate interpretations and calibrations, satellite-based metrics can play a pivotal role in advancing hydrological studies and water resource management in West Africa Sub-region. This insight underscores the potential of satellite data in augmenting regional hydrological research, establishing a foundation for similar studies in analogous global environments.

Geo-enabled election for efficient management of election processes in Du District of Plateau

One of the major reasons adduced by the military junta in the recent waves of coup-d’etat experienced in Africa and some West-Africa sub-region was floored election process hence the need for geo-enabled election process that is vivid. The aim of this article is to geo-enabled the entire election process by delineating and standardizing electoral Constituencies and Wards to a convenient size that is relative to the demographic characteristics. The fidelity of an election process in Nigeria can only be preserved and sustained by geo-enabling the entire process in phases. The recent past election trajectory in Nigeria revealed different election maleficent that defiled all election protocols and standards. The three key stakeholders involved in election processes may not be exonerated from these election improprieties especially the political pundits and the election management body (INEC), because of their varying interests; although there are some gullible electorates willing to mortgage their votes for a morsel of bread. The article demonstrated a proto-type geo-enabled election process of Du district (constituency) in Jos South LGA of Plateau State by using GIS and GPNAS to structure both spatial and attribute election data in order to delineate effectively constituency and ward boundaries and carry all stakeholders along. The result include Constituency map with a well defined boundary, roads linking ballot places; ward maps and table showing the geographic coordinates of ballot areas. The article has unveiled to all the stakeholders what to expect from the election umpire, navigate to ballot places and how to plan effectively before, during and after election.

First molecular detection of influenza D virus in cattle from commercial farm in Nigeria, Sub-Saharan Africa

Objective: To carrry out molecular surveillance of influenza D virus (IDV) in cattle in Lagos, Nigeria. Methods: Prospective epidemiological investigation was initiated in a large commercial farm market where animals in open pens were reared, sold, and butchered under poor hygienic conditions without adequate biosecurity measures. A total of 80 nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from cattle between October and November 2021. The samples were extracted using an RNA purification kit (NIMR). RNA extracts were amplified following a two-step PCR using FIREScript RT cDNA synthesis kit (Solis Biodyne, Estonia), followed by PCR OneTaq Quick-load 2X master-mix (NEB, UK) in a Rotor-Gene thermocycler (Qiagen, Germany). Amplicons were detected using a 1.5% Gel electrophoresis. Results: In total, 32.5% (26/80) IDV was detected in cattle. Sick animals showed higher burden of IDV with 65.4% (17/26) than 34.6% (9/26) in a healthy population, including 88.2% (15/17) cattle with diarrhoea and 11.8% (2/17) with nausea having IDV. An incidence of 69.2% (18/26) by sex was recorded in bull, which was more than twice compared to 30.7% (8/26) in cow. Age prevalence showed 62.2% (18/26), the highest detection in cattle of four years old, followed by 23.1% (6/26) in five years old, while the lowest 7.7% (2/26) was recorded in three years old. Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first molecular detection of IDV in Nigeria and West Africa sub-region. It underscores the need for continuous surveillance of IDV at the animal-human interface.

The dynamics of Islamic marital jurisprudence in Islamic courts: the experience of the Kwara state and Zanzibar

Zanzibar is an island located in East Africa and part of the United Republic of Tanzania. In contrast, Kwara State is one of the states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in the West Africa sub-region. Both regions have similar colonial histories and post-colonial experiences. Islamic Jurisprudence has undergone many reforms since the post-colonial era in Zanzibar Island of Tanzania and Kwara State of Nigeria. Islamic Jurisprudence is used in the adjudication process in Islamic religious courts in these two regions of Africa with a sizeable Muslim population. These courts essentially adjudicate Muslim personal matters, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, wills, and endowment. The official jurisprudence of the people Zanzibar-Tanzania is Shafi’i jurisprudence. For the people of Kwara State of Nigeria, Maliki jurisprudence is recognized. Marriage is considered part of Muslim identity; therefore, applicable jurisprudence is necessary for a fair hearing on Muslim personal matters. The Muslim judges (qadis) play a laudable role in the justice system under Islamic Jurisprudence. This paper uses doctrinal, case law and empirical approaches for the discourse.

Combating Lassa Fever in West African Sub-Region: Progress, Challenges, and Future Perspectives.

Lassa fever (LF) is a rodent-borne disease that threatens human health in the sub-region of West Africa where the zoonotic host of Lassa virus (LASV) is predominant. Currently, treatment options for LF are limited and since no preventive vaccine is approved for its infectivity, there is a high mortality rate in endemic areas. This narrative review explores the transmission, pathogenicity of LASV, advances, and challenges of different treatment options. Our findings indicate that genetic diversity among the different strains of LASV and their ability to circumvent the immune system poses a critical challenge to the development of LASV vaccines/therapeutics. Thus, understanding the biochemistry, physiology and genetic polymorphism of LASV, mechanism of evading host immunity are essential for development of effective LASV vaccines/therapeutics to combat this lethal viral disease. The LASV nucleoprotein (NP) is a novel target for therapeutics as it functions significantly in several aspects of the viral life cycle. Consequently, LASV NP inhibitors could be employed as effective therapeutics as they will potentially inhibit LASV replication. Effective preventive control measures, vaccine development, target validation, and repurposing of existing drugs, such as ribavirin, using activity or in silico-based and computational bioinformatics, would aid in the development of novel drugs for LF management.

The effects of economic growth, trade liberalization, and financial development on environmental sustainability in West Africa. The role of institutions

This study looks at how economic growth, trade liberalisation, and financial development affect the health of the environment in West Africa. The study also looks at how efficient institutions help make the environment in the ECOWAS region more stable. Therefore, the study tested the validity of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis in the sub-region. The study employs the system generalised method of moments (system-GMM) estimation technique for 2005–2018. Other estimation techniques, including the pooled ordinary least squares (POLS), the fixed effect, the random effect and the difference generalised method of moments (d-GMM), are also used for robustness checks. The empirical results reveal that the initial stages of economic growth adversely affect environmental sustainability but improve it after a certain level. The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis is thus validated for the ECOWAS sub-region. The results also showed that trade liberalisation hurts environmental sustainability but moves towards environmental sustainability in the presence of quality institutions and a well-regulated market. The results imply that policy considers the quality of institutions and improvements in the financial sector to preserve the environment and limit erratic climate change. Data availability was the main challenge that we encountered during this study. This limited the scope of the study in terms of the sample size. The implication is that our findings does not take into account the changes in the variables for periods before 2005. This study is the first to comprehensively analyse environmental sustainability in the perspective of the entire West Africa sub-region. The recommendations from this study are therefore exclusive to all countries within the sub-region.

Analysis of first apheresis services in Ghana-Greater Accra Regional Hospital

BackgroundAt the combined American Society for Apheresis (ASFA) annual meeting and World Apheresis Association (WAA) Congress in 2014, it was observed that there were significant disparities with regard to the access of apheresis services within and across developing countries, with only few of such facilities available in Africa; notably South Africa and Nigeria. In 2019, Bone Marrow Transplantation (BMT) Unit-Ghana, acquired an apheresis machine. By the collaboration between BMT-Ghana, the Greater Accra Regional Hospital (GARH) and the Ministry of Health (Ghana), apheresis services is now available in Ghana. The aim of this paper is to present an analysis of apheresis services so far in Ghana. MethodA 12-month period from 2019 to 2021 was examined (less the period of the COVID-19 outbreak when the Unit was virtually at a standstill). The electronic database and hard copies of documented activities were analysed. Basic information on demographics and procedure types and counts was used. ResultsThe retrospective study encompassed data of 43 patients. Two (2) patients came from the West Africa sub-region (Nigeria and Cameroon) with the rest from 6 out of the 14 regions of Ghana (Greater Accra, Western, Central, Eastern, Ashanti, Volta). The essential nature of the apheresis services being the first in Ghana, brought patients as far as 315 km from the hinterlands to the Unit. Ages ranged from 2-52 years with a mean of 16.3 ± 15.3 years. Slightly more females (n = 23, 53%) received services than males (n = 20, 47%). Eighty-six percent (n = 37, 86%) of the patients were sickle cell patients referred to the Unit. Red Blood Cell exchange (RBCx) accounted for 87% (n = 40), of the 46 procedure counts followed by Continuous Mononuclear Cell Collection (CMNC) (n = 4, 9%) and lastly, Therapeutic Plasma Exchange (TPE) (n = 2, 4%). ConclusionGhana can now be counted among African countries offering apheresis services and the GARH is acknowledged as the only hospital in the country with this facility, thus improving patient care significantly.

Skills Assessment of Selected Supervised Machine Learning Algorithms in Predicting Seasonal Rainfall over Bauchi in Nigeria

An attempt is made to use four selected machine learning algorithms (MLAs) to predict the seasonal and monthly amount of rainfall over a Savana station in Nigeria. The four MLAs are the artificial neural network (ANN), Random Forest model (RFM), K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), and kernel basis Support Vector Machine (SVM). Monthly mean rainfall and monthly mean air temperature data from June to October over a period of 34 years (1986-2019) were used and seventeen atmospheric variables are used to develop the model during training period. The period is divided into two, the training (1986 - 2013) and testing (2014 - 2019) periods. The results show that SVM and ANN better reproduce both monthly and annual rainfall amount over the study area by accessing their skills during training period and also having lowest RMSE and MAE during testing period. SVM is the most suitable among the four MLAs. Though, some show better results for specific month(s), the SVM and ANN summary yield 84% and 82% respectively of good forecasts for seasonal rainfall amount over Bauchi. The web interface was developed using R (ShinyR Package) programming has a very interactive and good graphical user interface (GUI) for user with little or no computer knowledge. It is recommended that the two MLAs can be used to predict monthly and seasonal rainfall over Savana climatic zone of West Africa using the seventeen input variables and hence other variables can be selected for forecasting other rainfall properties like onset, cessation and length of rainy season over West Africa sub-region. The results also show the importance and weight of each of the seventeen input variables has in reproducing the dependent variable and hence be useful in choosing which input variable can be used in further studying the dynamics of West African rain producing systems. Keywords : Machine Learning, rainfall amount, training period, error analysis. DOI: 10.7176/JEES/12-10-06 Publication date: October 31 st 2022

Development of an Automated Algorithm to Detect and Track Developing and Mesoscale Convective Systems

An objective algorithm is developed which is capable of identifying convective cloud clusters (CCCs) at the point of initiation, tracking any selected of all identified CCCs to maturity (MCS) and then to the point of dissipation and thereby accumulating some physical, morphological and radiative properties. The technique is able to account for periods of growth, propagating, merging, splitting and decaying, which take place during the lifetime of an individual cluster. The algorithm was tested using brightness temperature from merged infrared images of at least eight reporting geostationary satellites or channels at a spatial resolution of 4 Km and temporal resolutions of 30 minutes. The model data used is Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) with the Advanced Research WRF (ARW) core simulated using the same spatial and temporal resolution with the satellite data for uniform comparison. This was the first attempt of developing such algorithm taking into consideration the uniqueness of West African convective systems. The algorithm loads an input (text) file where necessary inputs as preferred by the user, takes input file of satellite data or model’s output in netcdf file format. The good graphical interface for interacting with user makes it very flexible and easy to use with little computer knowledge. Good results from the comparison and validation shows a good agreement between the model’s output and satellite data shows the consistency in the tracking algorithm. The algorithm can hence be used for comparison or evaluating the performances of different Physics parameterizations/schemes in same model with the observed. It can also be used for comparison or evaluating performances of different models in simulating convective systems of the West Africa sub-region. Keywords : convective systems, tracking, properties, propagation, growth and decaying. DOI: 10.7176/JNSR/13-18-06 Publication date: October 31 st 2022

Fishers’ migration in the small pelagic fishery of Ghana: A case of small-scale fisheries management

Ghana is a fishing nation with a long tradition of active fishing industry in the West Africa sub-region. However, continuous decline in catches, coupled with other socio-economic conditions has resulted in unprecedented migration of fishers. This study aims to better understand migration in the small-scale fisheries sector of Ghana in order to ensure fisheries resources sustainability and secure fishers' livelihoods. We investigated the sources and demographic characteristics of migrant fishers, the patterns of migration (internal and international), accessibility of fishery resources in the host communities, and management and conservation of fishery resources in the host communities.We employed a mixed method in collecting information from local fishers, Chief Fishermen and Fisheries Technical Officers and analysed documents on fishers migration. Our findings revealed that Sekondi, Tema and Apam were the most important internal destinations for migrant fishers while Togo, Benin and Ivory Coast were the most visited transboundary destinations. The main driver for migration to other fishing communities was the desire to catch more fish with information for migration mostly gained through personal experience, friends and relatives. Migrant fishers in host communities have unlimited access to the resources, provided they go through the required protocols (such as payment of landing fee token, and obtaining the necessary documentation). The most common types of gears used by migrant fishers were set nets (35%), poli-watsa (19%) and drift gillnets (46%). The incidence of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing methods such as light fishing, blast fishing and the use of small mesh-sized fishing gears were minimal among migrant fishers in the host communities. In conclusion, the activities of Ghanaian migrant fishers in both internal and transboundary communities are essential to the socio-economic development and food security requirements of the host communities as well as the wellbeing of dependent households. Therefore, there is the need to formulate policies for managing the activities of these migrant fishers for sustainable management of the small pelagic fisheries resources.

Efficiency Analysis of Land Use and the Degree of Coupling Link between Population Growth and Global Built-Up Area in the Subregion of West Africa

The main challenge for land use efficiency is population growth. Using a coupling coordination model and the Sustainable Development Goal 11.3.1 (Land Consumption Rate to Population Growth Rate, LCRPGR), the present study unravels the evolution of land use types and efficiency of land use in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) from 2003 to 2019. We interpreted the temporal land use types based on the long-time series Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MCD12Q1-V6) land use images in 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015, and 2019. The World Bank data on population and socioeconomics were used to support the investigation on the coupled link. Our results showed that from 2003 to 2019, the total area of agricultural land decreased by −1.4%, while the built-up area expanded by 25.80%. Globally, the LCRPGR was 0.82, of which Cabo-Verdi and Niger had the highest (1.69) and lowest index (0.58), respectively. Correspondingly, the coupled coordination model indicated an overall value of 6.81, in which the highest and lowest value occurred in Liberia (29.78) and Niger (0.31), respectively. Furthermore, a rapidly growing population had become one of the most important factors causing inefficient land use in the study area. In summary, the ECOWAS was confronted with a lack of management to improve land use efficiency. Thus, future land use policies should pay more attention to balancing the coupled relationship between urban expansion and socio-economic interests.

Efficiency of Investment in Agricultural R & D in Relation to Food Production Index: A Malmquist Index Analysis for the West-African Countries

Investment in R & D in the agricultural sector is one of the means to propel the growth of the sector, but failure to ensure the efficient use of resources allocated to agricultural R & D would lead to wastage and underproduction. Based on this, the paper seeks to look at the efficiency of investment in agricultural R& D in relation to the food production index in the West Africa sub-region. To achieve this objective, the number of full-time researchers and spending in terms of percentage of the share of agriculture to GDP were treated as inputs and the food production index as an output (agriculture output). The study used panel data from 2009 to 2014. The Malmquist index approach was adopted to measure the efficiency of food production in selected West African countries. The mean Malmquist index of 0.991, 1.032, 0.976, 0.995, 1.051, 0.908, 0.966, and 0.961 for Ghana, Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo, respectively, were recorded. Benin and Niger experienced growth in food production within the period. The remaining countries, however, did not experience growth in food production as their respective means were less than 1 (Mi <1), which was an indication of inefficiencies in the application of investments committed to agricultural R & D. To help identify the role played by various components, technical efficiency change and technological progress change for the respective countries were also calculated. The results of the study show the need to go beyond mere allocation of resources to the agricultural sector and push towards efficient use of resources. The allocation of resources without measures to ensure their proper use would not yield the desired outcome. Various countries exhibited some levels of inefficiency across the dimensions assessed. This, therefore, calls for close attention to the use of agricultural resources. There is a need to ensure efficient use of resources committed to agricultural research and development across respective countries. Measures should be put in place to reduce wastage and redundancy in the allocation of resources for agricultural research and development, to improve efficiency and productivity in the agricultural sector.

Reassessing Regional Integration in the West Africa Sub-Region: Ecowas’s Prospects and Challenges

This paper attempts a reassessment of the workings and issues attached with ECOWAS in West Africa. There were actually 15 nations in West Africa before ECOWAS was formed, and the region was characterised by the many colonial experiences and administrations that had shaped these states that made up the region. This history also contains a wide range of administrative and bureaucratic traditions, which make it difficult to collaborate, collaborate, and establish institutions. Porous national boundaries make it easier for people to travel about in search of better economic opportunities, as well as for food and small weapons to be transported across borders informally. Francophone, Anglophone, and Lusophone divides continue to influence integration in numerous ways. Disparities in race, language, and religion make it difficult for post-colonial elites to unite people behind a shared national purpose, much alone one with a regional focus. Employing both historical and theoretical methods, this study examines the good and bad of Ecowas in line with the existing efforts among member states.&#x0D; Keywords:

Remittances, Trade Balance and Economic Growth in West Africa Sub-region

The impacts remittances and trade balance has on growth in West Africa sub-region was examine for the period 2007 to 2019. To this end, based on relevant theory a model was drawn. However, prior to estimation, reliability and validity of the data set was examined. This was followed by unit root test which shows that all variables attained stationarity at their first difference while Cointegration test indicated that there exists a long-run convergence among the variables. System Generalised Method of Moment estimation revealed that remittances inflows significantly and positively impact economic growth while trade balance exerted a negative and significant impact on economic growth. The over-identifying restrictions test of J-Statistics revealed that the instrument of measurement employed was valid. It was recommended among others that policy makers in West Africa should implement policies that continually encourage remittances inflow to the sub-region while ensuring that trade deficits emanates from productive investment.

Integrated Watershed Management Framework and Groundwater Resources in Africa—A Review of West Africa Sub-Region

Human activities mostly impact the trend and direction of rainwater, groundwater, and other river basin resources in the watershed in Africa. These activities alter river flows and the quality of usable water supplies at both highlands and lowlands. A watershed is indeed a conserved area of land that collects rain, sleet and snow, and empties or penetrates groundwater sources. The act of managing the activities around the watershed is integrated watershed management, which considers the social, economic, and environmental issues in tandem with the human, institutional, natural, and sustainability systems, which are the key drivers as identified in this study, as well as community interests and participation, to manage groundwater resources sustainably. These watersheds, river basins, and groundwater resources provide important services for communities and biodiversity. This paper reveals that the best way to protect groundwater resources is on a watershed basis using sustainable management measures. This technique enables us to handle a variety of concerns and objectives while also allowing us to plan in a complicated and uncertain environment. Sustaining a regional and sub-regional watershed involves cooperation and participation from a wide range of community interests and water users, including municipalities, companies, people, agencies, and landowners, for stakeholders’ input to be successful. All of the strategies and plans are produced with regard to one another, as well as the overall conditions of the watershed, local land uses, and specific regional transboundary issues.

Determination of the Efficiency of Port Performance and Productivity Based on Data Envelopment Analysis in the West Africa Sub-region

Background: Ports are one of the assets of every country and one way to achieve efficiency is by maximizing productivity amid limited resources. Despite the increase in the number of studies on the efficiency of container terminals, their focus has been channeled on advanced markets. Researchers conduct limited studies on container terminals in developing countries such as those of the West African region, which are located in a critical geographic place in the international maritime route between these areas and the World. Information on their potential for development relative to other terminals worldwide is therefore not readily available hence, this study seeks to provide answers to critical productivity indicators of ports in the West Africa sub-region. Methods : We evaluate the technical efficiency of the 5 major container terminals in the West African region. The Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approach is used to measure technical efficiency and slack variable analysis which identifies potential areas of improvement for inefficient terminals. Moreover, DEA can handle multiple inputs and outputs, which makes it applicable to the port analysis. Findings: The results indicate that the Tema port is the most efficient port among the sample, with an average efficiency of 100% in the nine years and the Port of Cotonou is the least efficient with an average efficiency of 44% and exhibits substantial waste in production throughout the nine-year analysis. Novelty: This is the first time that the current data from 2010- 2018 has been used to determine port efficiency and the efficiency scores are necessary indicators for terminal managers to adopt and sustain all the necessary alignments to structures and strategies. Keywords: Data envelopment analysis; productivity improvement; efficiency; port management; West Africa

French Economic and Monetary Policies in Francophone Africa:

Since granting independence to her former colonies (especially the countries in the West and Central Africa subregions), France has maintained tight economic, political, and to a great extent, social control over their internal and external affairs. These continued ties with France have become the subject of contentious debates (previously considered taboo) among scholars in recent times, evidenced in the development of activism in Africa and continental Europe where the former has been sensitized or radicalized about France’s exploitative approach to economic partnership. The economies of these African nations have suffered stagnation and retrogression in contrast to their non-French-influenced neighbors. This essay employs a literature review to assess the impact of French hegemony over these former colonies, therefore providing a cogent argument for the abolition of the monetary agreement in favor of a local currency, and cessation of political dependencies that also carry a negative stigma. Intellectuals and politicians have argued that the continued use of the CFA franc currency (a relic of colonialism with a different twist) is exploitative; recognized even by French politicians who have appealed to their government to employ moral and ethical considerations to desist from the persistent exploitation of Africa. Social movements have developed today in demanding that African nations still using this currency should withdraw from the agreements due to the severe negative effects on economic development.