Wenzhou Model Research Articles

Critical appraisal and external validation of a prognostic model for survival of people living with HIV/AIDS who underwent antiretroviral therapy

BackgroundHIV/AIDS remains a leading cause of death worldwide. Recently, a model has been developed in Wenzhou, China, to predict the survival of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) who underwent antiretroviral therapy (ART). We aimed to evaluate the methodological quality and validate the model in an external population-based cohort.MethodsPrediction Model Risk of Bias Assessment Tool (PROBAST) was used to assess the risk of bias of the Wenzhou model. Data were from the National Free Antiretroviral Treatment Program database. We included PLWHA treated between February 2004 and December 2019 in a tertiary hospital in Guangzhou city, China. The endpoint was all-cause deaths and assessed until January 2020. We assessed the discrimination performance of the model by Harrell’s overall C-statistics and time-dependent C-statistics and calibration by comparing observed survival probabilities estimated with the Kaplan–Meier method versus predicted survival probabilities. To assess the potential prediction value of age and gender which were precluded in developing the Wenzhou model, we compared the discriminative ability of the original model with an extended model added with age and gender.ResultsBased on PROBAST, the Wenzhou model was rated as high risk of bias in three out of the four domains (selection of participants, definition of outcome, and methods for statistical analysis) mainly because of the misuse of nested case–control design and propensity score matching. In the external validation analysis, 16758 patients were included, among whom 743 patients died (mortality rate 11.41 per 1000 person-years) during follow-up (median 3.41 years, interquartile range 1.64–5.62). The predictor of HIV viral load was missing in 14361 patients (85.7%). The discriminative ability of the Wenzhou model decreased in the external dataset, with the Harrell’s overall C-statistics being 0.76, and time-dependent C-statistics dropping from 0.81 at 6 months to 0.48 at 10 years after ART initiation. The model consistently underestimated the survival, and the level was 6.23%, 10.02%, and 14.82% at 1, 2, and 3 years after ART initiation, respectively. The overall and time-dependent discriminative ability of the model improved after adding age and gender to the original model.ConclusionThe Wenzhou prognostic model is at high risk of bias in model development, with inadequate model performance in external validation. Thereby, we could not confirm the validity and extended utility of the Wenzhou model. Future prediction model development and validation studies need to comply with the methodological standards and guidelines specifically developed for prediction models.

The Sources of Knowledge for China’s Economic Development

Abstract The lack of knowledge, both technological and institutional, has been and continues to be, China’s main constraint during its transition from a planned economy to a market economy. Using illustrative examples, this article identifies two main sources of knowledge. The Shenzhen model opens a platform to acquire knowledge from abroad; the Wenzhou model reveals mechanisms by which knowledge is created internally. The two models represent different ways of regional experimentation, a unique method for knowledge creation and diffusion during China’s economic transition.

Discovering a ‘post-revolutionary’ sense of place in China’s small commodity city of Yiwu

The ‘small commodity city' of Yiwu in China specialises in low-end products, enjoying economic success due to its early establishment of private enterprise, yet relying upon traditional forms of solidarity as well as those provided by the structures of the market. It has ‘history', but one that has been reconstructed beyond all recognition. Drawing primarily upon the work of Doreen Massey, this article explores the burgeoning sense of place in Yiwu and the wider implications this has for thinking on place. The article analyses two specific elements: the ‘Wenzhou model', on which China's small commodity economy is built, and the architectural form of the ‘small district'. It argues that the use of the Wenzhou model in Yiwu situates it at the forefront of an economic national historical trajectory, and that the development of small districts, tied as they are to previous historical built forms, provides a sense of the past as an assemblage from which current identity can be forged. A sense of place, it proposes, has arisen precisely due to the unusual assemblage of those elements, but is less tied to traditional notions of place, being more grounded within moments and networks that resonate with current post-revolutionary lived experiences.

Social capital and folk lending in China’s hottest financial market

In 2011, responding to a credit crunch, Wenzhou became the first and only municipality to institute complete financial reform. Wenzhou had been the fastest growing municipal economy in China’s fastest-growing province for two decades. But the global financial crisis hit hard the informal financial networks which funded small and medium-sized enterprises. The so-called ‘Wenzhou model’ has long been dependent on financial capital from other parts of China funnelled through these networks to fund local entrepreneurs, especially the person-to-person financing known as folk lending. These informal financial networks relied heavily on interpersonal connections, reputation and trust, the major ingredients of social capital in banking and finance. In order to generate the social capital lost in the credit crunch, Wenzhou created government financial intermediaries, but these have not had much success. However, peer-to-peer on-line financing companies (P2P platforms), established concurrently by private entrepreneurs with little capital, have been highly successful. In effect, P2P platforms have capitalised on the ‘Wenzhou model’ by using the Wenzhou brand name to create a new form of financing network channel.

Sustainable development of the three economic patterns in China: The application of genuine progress indicator in the sustainability assessment of six typical cities.

Three economic patterns, i.e., Zhujiang Model, Wenzhou Model and Sunan Model, were all generated in the developed areas of China. Sustainability assessment of those areas plays an important role in guiding future development of the economy of China. Genuine progress indicator (GPI) was adopted in this study to evaluate the sustainability of 6 typical cities (Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Wenzhou, Suzhou, Wuxi, and Changzhou) of the three economic patterns from 1995 to 2012. During the study period, the values of GDP for the six cities had experienced exponential growth, while the values of GPI started to increase since 2005 after a relatively constant period between 1995 and 2005. The gap between GPI and GDP had been widening from a historical perspective. Zhujiang Model made great progress in economic growth, however, the economic, social, and environmental costs were evident. It should tackle income inequality, traffic jam, and environmental pollution to reach sustainability. The development of Wenzhou Model slowed down in the late pe-riod, with inadequate potential to develop. Its income inequality was tough, social and economic development was slow, and the economic development pattern needed to be urgently changed. Sunan Model had a higher value of GPI and the potential to reach sustainability, with remarkable growth of economy, median level of the GPI costs, and steady improvement of social development, although its natural resources were depleted. Three economic patterns should focus on the three dimensions of sustainability (economy, environment, and society), and Zhujiang Model and Wenzhou Model needed to be more active to search for transition of their development.

Transplanted Wenzhou Model and Transnational Ethnic Economy: experiences of Zhejiangcun's Wenzhou migrants and Wangjing's Chaoxianzu (ethnic Korean Chinese) migrants in Beijing

This paper explores why Zhejiangcun's Wenzhou migrants and Wangjing's Chaoxianzu migrants were able to maintain and actively restructure their settlements in Beijing while Beijing's other migrant settlements either disappeared or were forced out from their original locations. Highlighting the role of the Wenzhou model in Zhejiangcun and that of the transnational ethnic ties in Wangjing, this research illustrates how certain rural migrants emerged as a new social group by utilizing their cultural capital based on native-place and ethnic ties and newly found economic power. The present study examines the urban space of Zhejiangcun and Wangjing where alternative sources of economic power and social networks were created and utilized and therefore offers a unique perspective by locating a specifically-founded ethnographic analysis within the general debate on the restructuring of post-reform urban space.

Beyond the gpn–new regionalism divide in china: restructuring the clothing industry, remaking the wenzhou model

.This article attempts to advance the research on industrial districts and regional development through a study of the restructuring of the clothing industry in Wenzhou Municipality, a regional driver of the Chinese economy. Wenzhou is known for the Wenzhou model of development traditionally centred on family‐owned small businesses embedded in local institutions. The clothing industry is one of the leading industries in Wenzhou, and a cluster with national significance has emerged, where most of the production components can be purchased locally. However, the industry has been scaled up nationally and internationally, with the expansion of sales networks and production facilities across China, and to a lesser extent, abroad. This restructuring has changed the endogenous nature of industrial clusters/districts. The restructuring challenges the orthodox notion of the Wenzhou model and the New Regionalism literature, particularly the orthodox notion of Marshallian industrial districts that overly emphasizes small firms and local assets, and the global production network perspective that highlights coupling with global lead firms in regional development.

China's Shoe Manufacturing and the Wenzhou Model: Perspectives on the World's Leading Producer and Exporter of Footwear

A U.S.-based geographer and specialist on China advances his research on industrial districts and regional development by presenting a 2008 study of shoe manufacturing in Wenzhou (a major center in the world's largest footwear producing and exporting country). More specifically, the author examines how the model of economic development pioneered in Wenzhou (the Wenzhou model) has been transformed in an effort to meet the challenges posed by the global economy. He argues that the scaling up of Wenzhou's footwear industry, through the expansion of sales networks and factories across China and abroad, indicates that other adaptable city regions can overcome similar obstacles. The author challenges both the New Regionalism literature focused on local institutions and assets, as well as perspectives that overemphasize the benefits of globalization and global production networks. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: O100, O140, O180. 2 figures, 3 tables, 60 references.

Restructuring Industrial Districts, Scaling Up Regional Development: A Study of the Wenzhou Model, China

The Wenzhou Municipality in Zhejiang Province is spearheading China’s marketization and development of private enterprises. Its successful development trajectory, centered on family-owned small businesses embedded in thick local institutions, resembles Marshallian industrial districts (MIDs). However, with China’s changing institutional environment and intensifying competition, Wenzhou has been facing challenges. Since the late 1980s, Wenzhou has gone through two major rounds of restructuring (from family enterprises to shareholding cooperatives to shareholding enterprises), that have included four major types of strategic response: institutional change, technological upgrading, industrial diversification, and spatial restructuring. Firms in Wenzhou have gone through localization and delocalization, and locational choices reflect the dual destinations of globalizing cities and interior cities. The formation of new firms and clusters has been accompanied by mergers, acquisitions, and the emergence of multiregional enterprises (MREs), some of which have relocated their headquarters and specialized functions to metropolitan areas, especially Shanghai and Hangzhou. More recently, Wenzhou’s growth has slowed, leading some to question the sustainability of the Wenzhou model. We argue that Wenzhou’s development is in danger of regional lock-ins - relational, intergenerational, and structural. Wenzhou’s experience challenges the orthodox concept of MIDs and calls for “scaling up” regional development.

Boss Christians: The Business of Religion in the "Wenzhou Model" of Christian Revival

The Wenzhou model of church is used as a central metaphor for examining the cultural linkage between the boss Christians and local church development. The model is an important element of the local bosses' cultural strategies and it reflects a widespread pattern of elite desire for cultural and economic capital.

Restructuring Industrial Districts, Scaling Up Regional Development: A Study of the Wenzhou Model, China

The Wenzhou Municipality in Zhejiang Province is spearheading China’ marketization and development of private enterprises. Its successful development trajectory, centered on family-owned small businesses embedded in thick local institutions, resembles Marshallian industrial districts (MIDs). However, with China’ changing institutional environment and intensifying competition, Wenzhou has been facing challenges. Since the late 1980s, Wenzhou has gone through two major rounds of restructuring (from family enterprises to shareholding cooperatives to shareholding enterprises), that have included four major types of strategic response: institutional change, technological upgrading, industrial diversification, and spatial restructuring. Firms in Wenzhou have gone through localization and delocalization, and locational choices reflect the dual destinations of globalizing cities and interior cities. The formation of new firms and clusters has been accompanied by mergers, acquisitions, and the emergence of multiregional enterprises (MREs), some of which have relocated their headquarters and specialized functions to metropolitan areas, especially Shanghai and Hangzhou. More recently, Wenzhou’ growth has slowed, leading some to question the sustainability of the Wenzhou model. We argue that Wenzhou’ development is in danger of regional lock-ins—relational, intergenerational, and structural. Wenzhou’ experience challenges the orthodox concept of MIDs and calls for “scaling up” regional development.

Wenzhou and the Third Italy: Entrepreneurial Model Regions

ABSTRACT Physically semi-isolated between the two economically booming deltas of Shanghai and Guangzhou, Wenzhou provides the premier example of successfully autonomous, bottom-up entrepreneurial development in contemporary China. Along with a prosperous urban area, rural farm cooperatives are developing a new model of financing that integrates the three previous periods of economic experimentation. This research outlines the Wenzhou Model, discusses similarities with the Third Italy Model, and notes development possibilities for other Chinese metropolitan regions. Keys to success lie in local trust-based social networks, a focus on niche sectors, market sensitive export orientation, and investments utilizing endogenous capital.

Industrial development in the inland region of China: A case study of the motorcycle industry

Although the inland region of China has generally been left behind in economic development compared with the coastal region, the motorcycle industry in Chongqing has recorded remarkable growth due to the meteoric rise of private enterprises over the last decade. Based on panel data of enterprises, we attempt to identify the factors behind the dynamic development of this industry. We conclude that the success of the motorcycle industry in Chongqing is attributable to a combination of positive features from the Wenzhou model in the 1990s, in which industrial development is based on clustering of private enterprises, and the Sunan model in the 1980s, in which industrial development is based on the effective use of human resources recruited from existing state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Learning by collective enterprises from SOEs in Chongqing coupled with the growth of the private enterprise sector fostered cluster-based industrial development. Journal of Comparative Economics 34 (4) (2006) 818–838.

The Growth of China's Private Sector: A Case Study of Zhejiang Province

Private capital is one of the main driving forces in China's initiatives towards stimulating the market economy. The development of private economy in China has always been based on integrating industrial and corporate structures with product composition and market structures. This paper explores the development of the private economy and how it integrates different industries with specific markets by analyzing the leading private sector in Zhejiang province. It also examines the trends of industrial cluster, the formation of the agglomerative economy and their effects on private economy development. Finally, the paper explains why Zhejiang people have profited much from the Wenzhou model, and discusses some existing problems and future possibilities for development of the Wenzhou model. (Edited by Zhinan Zhang)

Geospatial Analysis of Regional Development in China: The Case of Zhejiang Province and the Wenzhou Model

The paper, based on extensive field work and surveys, analyzes in a GIS environment the multiscalar patterns and emerging clusters of regional development in Zhejiang Province (one of China's most rapidly growing) and Wenzhou Municipality (known for the Wenzhou Model of development based on private enterprise and rural industrialization). The authors first investigate the extent to which a traditional northeast-southwest divide has been replaced by emerging coastal-interior divide and whether intraprovincial inequality in Zhejiang, especially rural intercounty inequality, has intensified as new development clusters have emerged. At a finer scale of investigation, they analyze the Wenzhou Model and explain the resulting patterns of change by addressing the role of localities, the state, and globalization. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: O10, O14, O18, O20. 10 figures, 1 table, 36 references.

From inferior to superior products: an inquiry into the Wenzhou model of industrial development in China

Although the vitality of small private enterprises as the prime mover of the substantial economic growth in Wenzhou is widely recognized, empirical research investigating the development process of such private enterprises is useful. Based on a survey of enterprises producing low-voltage electric appliances, we find that the entry of a large number of new enterprises producing poor-quality products was followed by the upgrading of product quality and the introduction of new marketing strategies. Hence, we attempt to identify statistically the mechanisms underlying this evolutionary process of industrial development. Journal of Comparative Economics 32 (3) (2004) 542–563.

Regional Inequality in China: A Case Study of Zhejiang Province

ABSTRACTMost studies on regional inequality in China are based on macro regions and provinces. Studies on intraprovincial inequality remain limited, although there is a growing literature on Guangdong and Jiangsu. Zhejiang is a leading coastal province of China experiencing rapid economic growth and has been known for its Wenzhou model of development based on private enterprises. This paper uses time‐series county data to examine regional inequalities in Zhejiang from 1952 to 1998, with a focus on the reform period of 1978–98. We find that intermunicipal and intercounty inequalities in Zhejiang increased substantially, and overall inequality also increased, especially in the 1990s when more radical market reforms were implemented. While cities like Hangzhou and Ningbo have maintained their higher level of wealth, some counties, particularly coastal counties in municipalities like Wenzhou and Taizhou, have recorded dramatic growth, centred on private enterprises. However, municipalities such as Quzhou, which were favoured by Mao's industrialisation policy, recorded slower growth, as did the traditionally poorer municipalities. We have analysed the role of localities, the state, and globalisation in the changing patterns of regional development in Zhejiang, with an emphasis on local agents of development.

Changing Roles of Innovation and Imitation in Industrial Development: The Case of the Machine Tool Industry in Taiwan

Previous articleNext article No AccessChanging Roles of Innovation and Imitation in Industrial Development: The Case of the Machine Tool Industry in Taiwan*Tetsushi Sonobe, Momoko Kawakami, and Keijiro OtsukaTetsushi SonobeFoundation for Advanced Studies on International Development Search for more articles by this author , Momoko KawakamiInstitute of Developing Economies Search for more articles by this author , and Keijiro OtsukaFoundation for Advanced Studies on International Development Search for more articles by this author Foundation for Advanced Studies on International DevelopmentInstitute of Developing EconomiesFoundation for Advanced Studies on International DevelopmentPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Economic Development and Cultural Change Volume 52, Number 1October 2003 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/380105 Views: 65Total views on this site Citations: 12Citations are reported from Crossref © 2003 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Juan Manuel Gil, Luis Angel Madrid, Carlos Hernán Fajardo IPRs and Innovation, Technology Transfer, and Economic Welfare, (Jan 2020): 1536–1568.https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-9273-0.ch074Sana Ullah, Muhammad Tariq Majeed, Muhammad Hafeez Education, experience, social network and firm survival: the case of the electrical fittings cluster in Sargodha, Pakistan, DECISION 46, no.33 (Apr 2019): 267–278.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40622-019-00209-6Juan Manuel Gil, Luis Angel Madrid, Carlos Hernán Fajardo IPRs and Innovation, Technology Transfer, and Economic Welfare, (Jan 2017): 91–131.https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-2319-2.ch004Babur Wasim Arif Education, Experience and Enterprise Development, Journal of South Asian Development 8, no.33 (Dec 2013): 273–299.https://doi.org/10.1177/0973174113504844Alhassan Iddrisu, Yukichi Mano, Tetsushi Sonobe Entrepreneurial Skills and Industrial Development: The Case of a Car Repair and Metalworking Cluster in Ghana, Journal of the Knowledge Economy 3, no.33 (May 2011): 302–326.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-011-0047-6Liang-Chih Chen The governance and evolution of local production networks in a cluster: the case of Taiwan’s machine tool industry, GeoJournal 76, no.66 (Oct 2009): 605–622.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-009-9317-2Yuichi Kimura Knowledge Diffusion and Modernization of Rural Industrial Clusters: A Paper-manufacturing Village in Northern Vietnam, World Development 39, no.1212 (Dec 2011): 2105–2118.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.04.017John Chen, David Parker Taiwan's Textile and Clothing SME Response to Globalization, Journal of Asia-Pacific Business 8, no.22 (Jul 2007): 89–111.https://doi.org/10.1300/J098v08n02_05Tetsushi Sonobe, Dinghuan Hu, Keijiro Otsuka Industrial development in the inland region of China: A case study of the motorcycle industry, Journal of Comparative Economics 34, no.44 (Dec 2006): 818–838.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2006.07.001KEIJIRO OTSUKA CLUSTER-BASED INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: A VIEW FROM EAST ASIA*, The Japanese Economic Review 57, no.33 (Sep 2006): 361–376.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5876.2006.00376.xTetsushi Sonobe, Keijiro Otsuka The Division of Labor and the Formation of Industrial Clusters in Taiwan, Review of Development Economics 10, no.11 (Feb 2006): 71–86.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2005.00301.xTetsushi Sonobe, Dinghuan Hu, Keijiro Otsuka From inferior to superior products: an inquiry into the Wenzhou model of industrial development in China, Journal of Comparative Economics 32, no.33 (Sep 2004): 542–563.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2004.05.001

Local Initiative and National Reform: The Wenzhou Model of Development

The “Wenzhou model” is a controversial one in China. Wenzhou, situated in south-eastern Zhejiang Province, is characterized by its lively private or unofficial economy. This pattern of development caused Wenzhou to be pulled into the vortex of national politics, policy-making and reform in the 1980s. As a result, policy implementation and development in Wenzhou has a wider significance than just as an example of local variation.

The "Wenzhou Model" of Development and China's Modernization

The "Wenzhou Model" of Development and China's Modernization