Midlife Well-being Research Articles

Constructing Stories of Self-Growth: How Individual Differences in Patterns of Autobiographical Reasoning Relate to Well-Being in Midlife

Although growth has been a central focus in narrative research, few studies have examined growth comprehensively, as a story that emerges across the interpretation of many events. In this study, we examined how individual differences in autobiographical reasoning (AR) about self-growth relate to traits and well-being in a national sample of midlife adults (N= 88) who ranged in age from 34 to 68. Two patterns of growth-related AR were identified: (1) positive processing, defined as the average tendency to interpret events positively (vs. negatively), and (2) differentiated processing, defined as the extent to which past events are interpreted as causing a variety of forms of self-growth. Results showed that positive processing was negatively related to neuroticism and predicted well-being even after controlling for the average valence of past events. Additionally, differentiated processing of negative events but not positive events was positively related to openness and predictive of well-being. Finally, growth-related AR patterns independently predicted well-being beyond the effects of traits and demographic factors.

Do positive children become positive adults? Evidence from a longitudinal birth cohort study

Little is known about the long-term consequences of positive well-being in childhood in the general population. We analysed data from the British 1946 birth cohort study to test associations between adolescent positive well-being and well-being in midlife. Positive and negative behaviours at ages 13 and 15 were rated by school teachers, and personality was assessed when the children were 16 years. Positive childhood behaviour was associated with midlife well-being; specifically a low probability of lifetime emotional problems, satisfaction with work, a high frequency of contact with friends or family and engagement in social activities. Happy children in this cohort were no more likely to marry, but significantly more likely to divorce. These associations were independent of childhood social class, childhood cognition, educational attainment, midlife occupational social class and extraversion. From this longitudinal study, we conclude that childhood well-being predicts positive adult well-being, and not merely the absence of mental ill-health.

Parental practices predict psychological well-being in midlife: life-course associations among women in the 1946 British birth cohort.

Certain parenting styles are influential in the emergence of later mental health problems, but less is known about the relationship between parenting style and later psychological well-being. Our aim was to examine the association between well-being in midlife and parental behaviour during childhood and adolescence, and the role of personality as a possible mediator of this relationship. Data from 984 women in the 1946 British birth cohort study were analysed using structural equation modelling. Psychological well-being was assessed at age 52 years using Ryff's scales of psychological well-being. Parenting practices were recollected at age 43 years using the Parental Bonding Instrument. Extraversion and neuroticism were assessed at age 26 years using the Maudsley Personality Inventory. In this sample, three parenting style factors were identified: care; non-engagement; control. Higher levels of parental care were associated with higher psychological well-being, while higher parental non-engagement or control were associated with lower levels of psychological well-being. The effects of care and non-engagement were largely mediated by the offspring's personality, whereas control had direct effects on psychological well-being. The psychological well-being of adult women was at least as strongly linked to the parenting style of their fathers as to that of their mothers, particularly in relation to the adverse effects of non-engagement and control. This study used a prospective longitudinal design to examine the effects of parenting practices on psychological well-being in midlife. The effects of parenting, both positive and negative, persisted well into mid-adulthood.

Effects of family connection and family individuation

This prospective longitudinal study explores the differential effects of family connection and family individuation measured during adolescence on later midlife well-being. Home interviews were held in the 1970s with 99 families of 245 adolescents. Connection and individuation in the family system were measured by self-report, a projective exercise, and coding of taped family interactions. Twenty-five years later, telephone interviews were conducted with 54 men and 120 women (representing 82 families) who had been adolescents in the 1970s interviews. Family connection (measured during adolescence) was associated with self-acceptance and positive relationships at midlife partially mediated by marriage. Family individuation (measured during adolescence) was associated with personal autonomy at midlife.

Childlessness and Psychological Well-Being in Midlife and Old Age: An Examination of Parental Status Effects Across a Range of Outcomes

The study explores and distinguishes links between parental status (childless persons, parents with residential children, and empty nest parents) and a range of psychological well-being outcomes in midlife and old age. Data are from the first wave of the Norwegian Life Course, Ageing and Generation (NorLAG) study (n = 5,189). We separate outcomes into cognitive (life satisfaction and self-esteem) and affective (positive and negative affect, depression, loneliness) components. Parental status has a net effect on cognitive well-being among women, as childless women report significantly lower life satisfaction and self-esteem than both mothers with residential children and empty nest mothers. However, motherhood is inconsequential for affective well-being. Among men, parental status is unrelated to any of the well-being aspects. Parental status effects are not modified by age, marital status, and education. The results demonstrate the importance of investigating the effect of parental status and other objective circumstances on a range of psychological well-being outcomes. Furthermore, the results reviewed and presented indicate somewhat more positive effects of parenthood in the Nordic countries than in the US, highlighting the role of social policies in shaping the impact of parental status on well-being.

The relationship between early personality and midlife psychological well-being: evidence from a UK birth cohort study

Individual differences in personality influence the occurrence, reporting and outcome of mental health problems across the life course, but little is known about the effects on adult psychological well-being. The aim of this study was to examine long range associations between Eysenck's personality dimensions and psychological well-being in midlife. The study sample comprised 1,134 women from the 1946 British birth cohort. Extraversion and neuroticism were assessed using the Maudsley Personality Inventory in adolescence (age 16 years) and early adulthood (age 26). Psychological well-being was assessed at age 52 with a 42-item version of Ryff's Psychological Well-being Scale. Analyses were undertaken within a structural equation modelling framework that allowed for an ordinal treatment of well-being and personality items, and latent variable modelling of longitudinal data on emotional adjustment. The contribution of mental health problems in linking personality variations to later well-being was assessed using a summary measure of mental health (emotional adjustment) created from multiple time-point assessments. Women who were more socially outgoing (extravert) reported higher well-being on all dimensions. Neuroticism was associated with lower well-being on all dimensions. The effect of early neuroticism on midlife well-being was almost entirely mediated through emotional adjustment defined in terms of continuities in psychological/ psychiatric distress. The effect of extraversion was not mediated by emotional adjustment, nor attenuated after adjustment for neuroticism. Individual differences in extraversion and neuroticism in early adult life influence levels of well-being reported in midlife.

Women of the 1950s and the “Normative” Life Course: The Implications of Childlessness, Fertility Timing, and Marital Status for Psychological Well-Being in Late Midlife

We explore women's psychological well-being in late midlife in relation to childlessness and timing of entry into motherhood. Using two U.S. surveys, Health and Retirement Study (HRS) (1992) and National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) (Sweet, Bumpass, & Call, 1988), we assess the well-being of childless women in their 50s compared to mothers with early, delayed, or normatively timed first births. We focus on the cohorts born between 1928 and 1941, who experienced strong normative pressures during the baby boom with regard to marriage and child-bearing. We find few differences among childless women but lower well-being among early mothers, related to singlehood and poorer socioeconomic status. Unmarried mothers are significantly disadvantaged regardless of maternal timing, controlling for socioeconomic status. Current maternal demands are independently related to well-being and help to explain observed differences in family satisfaction. Overall, childlessness and off-time child-bearing are related to midlife well-being through their link with more proximate factors, particularly current marital status, health, and socioeconomic status.

Paths to Late Midlife Well-Being for Women and Men: The Importance of Identity Development and Social Role Quality

Theories of adult development suggest that personality development and social role involvements are sources of adult well-being for both men and women. However, previous research on this topic has focused mainly on (a) women, and (b) early stages of adulthood. We tested an alternative model for predicting late-midlife adults’ well-being, with role quality, number of roles, and healthy adaptation to late midlife (reflected in lower concern about aging) as mediators of the relationship between young adult identity development and well-being in late midlife. Results indicated that the model fit women’s experience very well, and men’s experience somewhat. Follow-up analyses indicated that the model fit men’s experience with respect to family role quality, but that young adult identity played a lesser role in men’s well-being in later midlife, and that problems in the late-midlife work role were reflected in concerns about aging for men, but not for women.

The GED as a Predictor of Mid-Life Health and Economic Well-Being

ABSTRACT Guided by human capital, socialization, and institutionalization theories, this study examined mid-life health and economic well-being of General Education Development (GED) certificate recipients. Relying on a study sample (N = 1,927) obtained from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, GED recipients were found to have worse mid-life outcomes than conventional high school graduates on measures of family income and depression and to have better mid-life outcomes than high school dropouts on measures of assets, family income, depression, and self-reported physical illnesses. Findings suggested that GED recipients should not be unnecessarily lumped together with high school graduates and that programs and services targeting potential and subsequent GED recipients and high school dropouts to remain in school might not only improve their mid-life labor market and economic outcomes, but also their physical and mental health.

Family Dynamics in Adolescence Affect Midlife Well-Being.

This longitudinal study explores the association between family system characteristics measured during adolescence and later midlife well-being. Home interviews were held in the 1970s with 99 families with adolescents. Connection and individuation in the family system were coded from taped family interactions. Twenty-five years later, telephone interviews were conducted with 54 men and 120 women (representing 82 families) who were adolescents in the 1970s interviews. Family experiences during adolescence predicted adult well-being 25 years later. In a structural equation model, there was a direct effect of family both on the adolescents' later marriage and on well-being at midlife; for men, marriage also affected well-being. The results support the importance of connection and individuation in the adolescent family for adult well-being.

Subjective Well-Being in Midlife: The Role of Involvement of and Closeness to Parents in Childhood

This study used data from the British National Child Development Study to examine the role of parenting in later subjective well-being (SWB). Parenting was defined as mother involvement and father involvement (measured at age 7) and as closeness to mother and closeness to father (measured at age 16). SWB was measured at age 42 and was defined as life satisfaction, psychological functioning (measured with the GHQ-12), and absence of psychological distress (measured with the Malaise Inventory). Control factors were parental social class at birth, parental family structure throughout childhood, domestic tension in the parental home, parental ill mental health in early childhood, psychological maladjustment in adolescence, financial difficulties throughout childhood, educational attainment, self-rated health in early adulthood, and current socio-demographic correlates of SWB (labour force participation, religion and being partnered). It was found that even after adjusting for these factors closeness to mother at age 16 predicted life satisfaction at age 42 in both men and women, whereas mother involvement at age 7 predicted life satisfaction at age 42 in men. Closeness to mother at age 16 was also negatively related to poor psychological functioning at age 42 in women.

Middle-aged men: sexuality and well-being: Lecture given on the 5th European Congress on Menopause Copenhagen, Denmark, 1–4 July, 2000

Sexuality represents one of the key life domains typically affected by the ageing process. Male sexuality is often defined by performance and potency, but the onset of gradual physiological age changes at midlife influences the penile capability, reactivity and responsiveness and increases the chance of experiencing unexpected episodic impotence. Not only biological changes but also psychosocial conditions, developmental tasks in middle age, and psychological coping resources may influence sexual functioning and well-being. Several studies on the association of sexuality and well-being in the context of ageing, male role norms and coping styles are presented. For healthy ageing males, one challenge to maintain well-being in midlife and older life stages is to manage gradual changes affecting sexual performance by adopting adaptive coping strategies and eventually change the masculine style of sexuality. The challenge for the physicians treating the sexual problems of ageing males is to disentangle the physiological and pathological ageing process from the psychological reactions of ageing males to normal age changes.

Consequences of early parental loss and separation for health and well-being in midlife

We examined the impact of parental death and divorce prior to age 17 on physical and mental wellbeing in a national probability sample of middle-aged adults. The results suggest that, for men, parental divorce was associated with less positive relations with others, less self-acceptance, lower environmental mastery, and greater depression. Parental divorce predicted higher levels of physical health problems for both men and women. This relationship was mediated by income, education, drug use, and family support and was greater for men than women. Parental death predicted more autonomy for men and a higher likelihood of depression for women. The results contribute to understanding the developmental pathways involved in linking early life experiences to adulthood outcomes.

Life in the middle: psychological and social development in middle age

Theoretical Perspectives on Midlife: P. Moen and E. Wethington, Midlife Development in a Life Course Context. S.K. Whitbourne and L.A. Connolly, The Developing Self in Midlife. S.D. Rosenberg, H.J. Rosenberg, and M.P. Farrell, The Midlife Crisis Revisited. Biological Functioning and Physical Health at Midlife: S.S. Merrill and L.M. Verbrugge, Health and Disease in Midlife. N.E. Avis, Women's Health at Midlife. I.C. Siegler, B.H. Kaplan, D.D. Von Dras, and D.B. Mark, Cardiovascular Health: A Challenge for Midlife. Psychosocial Functioning at Midlife: C.L.M. Keyes and C.D. Ryff, Psychological Well-Being in Midlife. M. Clark-Plaskie and M.E. Lachman, The Sense of Control in Midlife. M.H. Huyck, Gender Roles and Gender Identity in Midlife. S.L. Willis and K.W. Schaie, Intellectual Functioning in Midlife. B.J. Avolio and J.J. Sosik, A Life-Span Framework for Assessing the Impact of Work on White-Collar Workers. J.D. Reid and S.L. Willis, Middle Age: New Thoughts, New Directions. Author Index. Subject Index.

"If I had it to do over again...": Midlife review, midcourse corrections, and women's well-being in midlife.

Regrets about early adult life choices, expressed in midlife, are examined as a source of motivation for life changes in later midlife in 2 samples of women. Replicated findings with longitudinal data indicate that regret motivates goal setting but is not associated with actually making desired life changes. In both samples, women who had regrets about early adult life choices but did not make relevant life changes were lower in later well-being than both women with regrets who did make such changes and women without regrets. Compared with women who transformed regrets into life changes, women who did not were lower in effective instrumentality and higher in rumination, though they did not appear to face more barriers to change. Analyses with longitudinal data indicated that both rumination and effective instrumentality mediated the relationship between regret and well-being for women who did not translate regret into life changes.

"If I had it to do over again...": Midlife review, midcourse corrections, and women's well-being in midlife.

Regrets about early adult life choices, expressed in midlife, are examined as a source of motivation for life changes in later midlife in 2 samples of women. Replicated findings with longitudinal data indicate that regret motivates goal setting but is not associated with actually making desired life changes. In both samples, women who had regrets about early adult life choices but did not make relevant life changes were lower in later well-being than both women with regrets who did make such changes and women without regrets. Compared with women who transformed regrets into life changes, women who did not were lower in effective instrumentality and higher in rumination, though they did not appear to face more barriers to change. Analyses with longitudinal data indicated that both rumination and effective instrumentality mediated the relationship between regret and well-being for women who did not translate regret into life changes.

Does It Hurt to Care? Caregiving, Work-Family Conflict, and Midlife Well-Being

This study examined the effects of caregiving for disabled children, spouses, parents, and other kin and nonkin on multiple positive and negative dimensions of psychological well-being and development using data from a population sample of employed, middle-aged men and women respondents in the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study 1992-1993 (n = 5,782). A life course role-identity theoretical framework was employed to hypothesize that contemporary social organization leads to conflicting demands across the role identities of employee and caregiver and that this conflict is an important factor in accounting for the negative effects of caregiving on well-being. Multivariate regression analyses confirmed these hypotheses and further revealed that if differences in work and family conflict between caregivers and noncaregivers were eliminated, the caregiving role would more often lead to positive effects on well-being. Key Words: caregiving, midlife, psychological well-being, work-family conflict. Understanding the consequences of assuming the role of caregiver to a disabled family member or friend is becoming an increasingly important private and public issue. Population estimates of caregiving now make it clear that the caregiving role is not a rare event in the life course (N. Marks, 1996; Stone, Cafferata, & Sangl, 1987). The prevalence of caregiving for the frail and the disabled peaks for adults in midlife when about one in five women and men provide some degree of care. This fact has led to recent scholarly interest in tracking the wellbeing of middle-aged women and men who often are faced with demanding multiple-role responsibilities related to family, employment, and community (Brody, 1981, 1985, 1990). The prevalence of caregiving responsibility for elders is also expected to increase as the United States and the world become an increasingly aging and aged society (Coward, Home, & Dwyer, 1992). Demographic trends toward longer lives, smaller families, higher rates of divorce, lower rates of marriage and remarriage, and higher rates of women's employment have led to predictions that caregiving for frail and disabled family members will fall on relatively fewer shoulders in the years ahead and that the risk of becoming a caregiver at some time or at multiple times over the life course is likely to increase (Coward et al., 1992; N. Marks, 1996; Moen, Robison, & Fields 1994). Caregiving research to date suggests that providing care for the frail and disabled leads to increased distress and burden (Schulz, Visintainer, & Williamson, 1990). There is also some evidence that caring for disabled family members is associated with poorer personal health (N. Marks, 1996; Schulz et al., 1990). However, most studies of caregiving are based on nonrepresentative samples that often include only women caregivers and lack a comparison group of noncaregivers. Research on the consequences of caregiving has focused predominantly on documenting the negative effects of caregiving; potential benefits related to the caregiving role are yet to be well investigated (Kramer, 1997). A sizable proportion of caregivers today are faced with blending the often contradictory behavioral expectations that accompany the roles of employee and the caregiver (N. Marks, 1996; Stone et al., 1987). Previous studies of employed caregivers have noted reports of considerable concerns about work-family conflict among caregivers (Scharlach & Boyd, 1989; Stone et al., 1987). Yet there is only limited evidence thus far (e.g., Gerstel & Gallagher, 1993) that addresses how many of the negative consequences of caregiving among employed persons are a result of taking on the caregiving role, itself, and how many can be accounted for by role overload. This study addresses this issue. Guided by a life course role-identity perspective, this investigation first examines associations between contrasting types of caregiving for disabled persons (i. …

Women, Marital Status, and Symptoms of Depression in a Midlife National Sample

ABSTRACT Previous studies of the correlates of depression among women have not generally been based on adequate midlife samples or precision in the specification of marital status categories. The present analysis is designed to address these deficiencies and is based on data from the Health and Retirement Survey-Wave 1 (i.e., respondents 51 to 61 years old). Results indicate that married women are less likely to report symptoms of depression than their unmarried counterparts. The mental health benefits of marriage are greater for men than for women. Moreover, other variables, such as marital satisfaction, self-rated health, and employment status are more powerful predictors of emotional well-being in midlife than marital status per se. The quality of marriage affects depressive symptoms more strongly for women than men.

Predicting women's well-being in midlife: The importance of personality development and social role involvements.

Theories of adult development suggest that both personality and social roles are sources of adult well-being, but most research has examined only social roles. An integrated model was used, including personality, number of roles, and role quality, to predict well-being in 2 longitudinal studies of college-educated women. Results for both samples indicated that role quality and personality development were important components of the path to well-being, whereas number of roles, occupied was important mainly in early adulthood. Moreover, the results provided support for E. Erikson's (1968) notion of the importance of the sequencing of personality development for later well-being. Path analyses indicated that engagement in multiple roles during early adulthood facilitated the development of identity, which predicted generativity and role quality, which in turn predicted well-being.

Predicting women's well-being in midlife: the importance of personality development and social role involvements.

Theories of adult development suggest that both personality and social roles are sources of adult well-being, but most research has examined only social roles. An integrated model was used, including personality, number of roles, and role quality, to predict well-being in 2 longitudinal studies of college-educated women. Results for both samples indicated that role quality and personality development were important components of the path to well-being, whereas number of roles, occupied was important mainly in early adulthood. Moreover, the results provided support for E. Erikson's (1968) notion of the importance of the sequencing of personality development for later well-being. Path analyses indicated that engagement in multiple roles during early adulthood facilitated the development of identity, which predicted generativity and role quality, which in turn predicted well-being.