Welfare Of Individual Animals Research Articles

Dilemmas in animal welfare

<title>Abstract</title> This book is comprised of 11 chapters covering different dilemmas in animal welfare. It deals with how, when deciding on the best way to treat an animal or groups of animals, one can be torn either between different concerns relating to the physical and affective welfare of the animal or between concern for the welfare of the animal and other competing concerns. Topics discussed include dilemmas within animal welfare (tail docking in cattle, welfare effects of obesity in cats and dogs and welfare and quantity of life), animal welfare and social priorities (improving farm animal welfare, divergent values ascribed to different animals and public health and animal welfare), animal welfare and conservation (balancing the need for conservation and the welfare of individual animals and value conflicts in feral cat management) and conceptual dilemmas (risk assessment approach to group housing and suffering in animals).

Use of salivary cortisol to evaluate the influence of rides in dromedary camels

Animals in captivity and in the wild face numerous challenges, including the risk of enduring acute or chronic stress. In captivity, facilities attempt to alleviate the risk of chronic stress by providing environmental enrichment, shown to minimize behavioral disorders and stress in several species. One potential form of enrichment in zoos is training animals to provide rides for guests, however, the effect of this activity on the welfare of individual animals has never been examined. We validated the use of saliva for assessing stress in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius), an animal commonly used for rides. We then measured variation in salivary cortisol in four male camels while providing rides of differing frequency for guests at the Toronto Zoo. The camels were sampled during the ride season (June to September) using four treatments: (1) in their pasture, (2) at the ride area when not performing rides, (3) while providing a low number of rides (n=50/day) and (4) while providing a high number of rides (n=150/day). Furthermore, samples were taken before and after the ride season for comparison. There was a significant difference between the post-ride season treatment and the three treatments involving guest presence during the ride season (ride area, low rides, high rides). In general, cortisol concentrations were lower during the ride season and higher during the non-ride season. Based on the metrics we used, performing rides is not a stressful experience for these dromedary camels and suggests that rides may be a form of enrichment.

Rapid animal welfare assessment: an archaeological approach.

The welfare of an individual depends on its capacity to overcome suboptimal conditions in its environment; otherwise, its physical and psychological health becomes compromised. A situation that clearly indicates lack of control of the environment is the expression of abnormal behaviours, such as stereotypies. This study aimed to verify the well-being of police horses using a new rapid form of welfare assessment: an archaeological approach. To this end, we sampled and quantified marks found on the stables, deposited as a result of abnormal behaviour. We cross-referenced these physical marks with veterinary records of diseases, such as colic, known to be associated with stress. A total of 46 horses were sampled and the results showed a significant medium-strength, positive correlation between bite mark frequency on stable doors and the incidence of colic. A weak significant positive correlation was found between length of scratch marks (from pawing) and the incidence of lameness. We conclude that these marks reflect the accumulated expression of abnormal behaviour and can provide rapid insight into the welfare of individual animals.

The Challenges to Improve Farm Animal Welfare in the United Kingdom by Reducing Disease Incidence with Greater Veterinary Involvement on Farm

Simple SummarySick cattle and sheep are often treated by farmers without prior veterinary examination and, as a consequence, incorrect diagnoses and inappropriate therapies are common, but these failings largely go undetected and unreported. Many farmers maintain that market forces render veterinary care of individual sick sheep and cattle too expensive. Delays in requesting veterinary attention are not uncommon causing unnecessary animal suffering and a poorer outcome. Incidence rates of endemic diseases in the United Kingdom are too high, causing animal welfare concerns, but these could be reduced by the implementation of proven veterinary flock/herd health programmes.The Cattle Health and Welfare Group of Great Britain report (CHAWG; 2012) lists the most important cattle diseases and disorders but fails to fully acknowledge the importance of animal mental health and; in so doing; misses the opportunity to further promote animal welfare. There are effective prevention regimens; including vaccination; husbandry and management strategies for all ten listed animal health concerns in the CHAWG report; however control measures are infrequently implemented because of perceived costs and unwillingness of many farmers to commit adequate time and resources to basic farm management tasks such as biosecurity; and biocontainment. Reducing disease prevalence rates by active veterinary herd and flock health planning; and veterinary care of many individual animal problems presently “treated” by farmers; would greatly improve animal welfare. Published studies have highlighted that treatments for lame sheep are not implemented early enough with many farmers delaying treatment for weeks; and sometimes even months; which adversely affects prognosis. Disease and welfare concerns as a consequence of sheep ectoparasites could be greatly reduced if farmers applied proven control strategies detailed in either veterinary flock health plans or advice available from expert veterinary websites. Recent studies have concluded that there is also an urgent need for veterinarians to better manage pain in livestock. Where proven treatments are available; such as blockage of pain arising from ovine obstetrical problems by combined low extradural injection of lignocaine and xylazine; these are seldom requested by farmers because the technique is a veterinary procedure and incurs a professional fee which highlights many farmers’ focus on economics rather than individual animal welfare.

Balancing Reduction and Refinement

By considering reduction before refinement, we risk allowing some animals to experience greater pain and distress. A variety of approaches can help balance reduction and refinement while promoting the welfare of individual animals

Human-wildlife interactions: the importance and benefits of effective training

Studies and projects undertaken under the auspices of conservation of wildlife are often treated as being synonymous with working to promote individual animal welfare. However, human interventions, with respect to wild animals, carry with them multiple risks for the animal subjects. Unfortunately, these risks and problems are sometimes given little consideration by practitioners, often because they are judged relative to natural processes or are incurred for the good of the species or population. Obviously, animals are subjected to a variety of natural factors likely to cause stress and poor welfare in the wild, and conservation and management of differing species to differing extents will probably always be necessary. However, in all these interventions, the welfare of the individual animal always needs to be upheld. One way of addressing this issue is by the provision of robust training. The Food and Environment Research Agency (Fera) have recently developed a training course (winner of the UFAW Wild Animal Welfare Award 2010) which centres around promoting and educating best practice in wildlife, particularly with respect to improved methods of capture, handling, marking and release. As well as standard training techniques, the course includes the use of practical scenarios and discussion platforms, tackling varying issues pertinent to working with wild species with the overall aim of ensuring high standards of welfare.

Small ruminant welfare: Levelling the playing field or raising the bar—A European perspective

There is a diversity of small ruminant production systems across Europe, which range from extensive upland and mountain systems with a low stocking rate and sometimes minimal supervision to more intensive and/or housed systems, for example for milk production from sheep and goats. This diversity, more prevalent than for other livestock species, leads to difficulties in evaluating the welfare of the individual animals concerned (because the experiences of animals are so different) with a related difficulty in creating common criteria for evaluating welfare across Europe as a whole, and in individual countries. Nevertheless, even without a valid, transparent and agreed basis for the evaluation of individual enterprises, it is still possible for livestock advisers and veterinarians, in collaboration with producers, to be proactive and to recommend on-farm measures, which could raise the general standard of care and, importantly, to have a major impact on the welfare of individual animals in these systems.

Exorcising of a Cage: A Review of American Zoo Exhibits, Part III

Enlargement of captive space has become a trend in zoos, frequently designed with geographic and mixed species themes. Geographic exhibits, however, often mislead the public; in mixed species exhibits, welfare of individual animals and their breeding potentials in some species are ignored. Another popular “natural” open and outdoor exhibit system commonly runs contrary to nature and the requirements of the inhabitants. In all this, the quality of space is forgotten. Zoos need to reevaluate the advantages of cages as well as animal housing in buildings, to ensure management of diverse species in a larger number of taxonomic groups. As zoos reach a crossroad in history, renewed significance of wildlife conservation must be realized in exhibit design consideration. The importance of cohesive and proper exhibit design processes cannot be over-emphasized.

A survey of wildlife rehabilitation in South Africa: is there a need for improved management?

AbstractThe focus of wildlife rehabilitation is the survival of the individual animal, often leading to rehabilitators being in conflict with government wildlife officials, who regulate the industry and whose focus is on the security of entire wildlife communities. In South Africa, wildlife rehabilitation has been the focus of recent attention from the general public, government and academics, due mostly to the development and adoption of norms and standards for the management of primates. Our study was initiated to provide the first survey of rehabilitation centres in South Africa. Questionnaires were returned by 65% known rehabilitation centres in South Africa, including all nine Provinces, through which several thousand injured, diseased and orphaned animals pass each year. It is clear there is a need for rehabilitation centres in South Africa. However, due to a lack of scientific research on the efficacy of rehabilitation methods for care and release, and minimal post-release monitoring, wildlife rehabilitation techniques and protocols have been based on work experience and subjective intuition. In conjunction with a lack of funds, there may be negative impacts on individual animal welfare and survival, as well as on conservation efforts for wildlife communities. Similar issues have been documented in other regions of the world. In the authors’ opinion, centralisation of wildlife rehabilitation to national or provincial government is a necessity. Furthermore, it is suggested that guidelines of minimum standards should be developed in consultation with experienced rehabilitators, veterinarians and conservation scientists; to be enforced by trained and dedicated conservation officials.

Programmatic approaches to assessing and improving animal welfare in zoos and aquariums

There continues to be intense public, professional, and scientific focus on the welfare of animals in zoos and aquariums, but implementing welfare assessment tools consistently throughout this community remains challenging. Indirect measures can be used to assess "welfare potential"-the potential that animals will experience good welfare based on the care that they are provided with. Zoos and aquariums focus on welfare potential with their continued commitment to develop animal care guidelines (e.g. Animal Care Manuals) that can play a role within institutional accreditation or certification. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums Animal Welfare Committee has been pursuing approaches to maximize welfare potential by developing the concept of an integrated welfare approach or framework-an attempt to identify recommended animal care programs (e.g. enrichment, nutrition, veterinary care, research, and animal training programs) and their programmatic components. Objectively assessing the influence that animal care recommendations have on the welfare of individual animals is important to determine the efficacy of programmatic approaches. The future of welfare assessment within zoos and aquariums will include population-level evaluations-tracking emerging trends in health and behavior that come from both formal and informal institutional animal reports. Sharing this information, and performing meta-analyses of the data using epidemiological approaches, will become easier with advances in technology and database management software. Identifying welfare "red/green flags" throughout captive populations will provide direction for more focused assessments that will ultimately inform the design of more effective animal care programs.

How sound from human activities affects marine mammals

Effects of sound on marine mammals have traditionally been defined either as injury or disruption of behavior. The earliest concern about behavioral disruption was that elevated noise could reduce the range of communication by masking faint signals. Few studies have documented this effect, but recent work emphasizes mechanisms animals use to compensate for elevated noise. Many studies have documented changes in behavior as a function of exposure, but it has proven difficult to relate these to effects on the welfare of individual animals or on the status of populations. Promising approaches to interpreting effects include avoidance of habitat, energetics of foraging, and applying models of anti-predator behavior to human disturbance. During the 1990s acoustic criteria for injury were designated based upon temporary hearing loss. Accumulating evidence of atypical mass strandings of beaked whales coincident with naval sonar exercises suggest that injury or death may result from behavioral responses of some species at lower exposure levels in some settings. A tagged beaked whale showed similar but weaker responses to experimental playback of a mid-frequency sonar sound compared to calls of killer whales, suggesting that anti-predator response may harm animals after exposure to levels of sound very unlikely to cause injury directly.

Wild Horse Protection Policies: Environmental and Animal Ethics in Transition

Wild horse protection policies in the United States and the Netherlands reflect ethical claims and scientific arguments, often cast as opposing positions favoring the integrity of self-sustaining ecosystems versus the welfare of individual animals. Neither holistic eco-centric, nor individualistic bio-centric ethical claims provide guidance to public sector practitioners who care for wild horses removed from U.S. public rangelands and living in holding facilities awaiting adoption; or who manage herds of de-domesticated horses in Dutch nature reserves. Wild horses are becoming increasingly dependent on transitional environments that are neither wild nor domestic. New ethical and scientific arguments are therefore needed to support revisions to existing policies.

Further role of zoos in conservation: Monitoring wildlife use and the dilemma of receiving donated and confiscated animals

The role of zoos in conservation has evolved. Additional roles that zoos can play in conservation include monitoring live wildlife use (one of the main threats for many species). Zoos in many parts of the world are offered animals by the public and are required to receive animals confiscated by the authorities. By quantifying these animals, zoos can monitor live wildlife use rates and trends and obtain relevant information on the environment of a region which can assist in situ conservation management. Zoos are sometimes forced to receive unwanted animals from the public or the authorities. Receiving these animals is a burden for zoos. Agreements between zoos and governments are important to take care of these animals and to optimize the use of conservation resources. It is not possible or desirable to maintain all donated and seized animals. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources provides useful guidelines on what to do with them. In all cases, species conservation should take precedence over individual animal welfare. These issues are illustrated with data collected at

In defense of zoos and aquariums: the ethical basis for keeping wild animals in captivity.

Hutchins and his coauthors argue that a strong commitment to wildlife conservation and animal welfare provide powerful ethical justifications for accredited zoos and aquariums. They note that zoo animals play an increasingly important role as ambassadors for their species in securing a future for wildlife and their habitats. They note the strong financial contribution of zoos to conservation efforts and have been effective at increasing quality of life for captive animals through exhibit design, scientifically based animal programs, and policy. They argue that the benefits of exhibiting animals in zoos are greater than the costs in individual animal welfare.

Strategic collection planning and individual animal welfare.

Strategic collection planning and individual animal welfare.

Ocular disease in rats: a review.

The rat Rattus norvegicus is widely used in experimental work, both providing a rodent model for human ocular disease and as a species for toxicologic screening. In addition, the rat is more and more widely kept as a pet, being both friendly and intelligent. Diagnosis and treatment of ocular disease is important for the welfare of individual animals and whole colonies, but also to ensure that spontaneous disease is not compromising experimental work. Here, ophthalmic conditions are reviewed in order to provide a survey of ocular disease in the rat both for veterinary ophthalmologists and for laboratory animal veterinarians and research workers.

Tackling conservation/welfare conflicts in the management of wild animals

During the last century there were two distinct and profound changes in attitudes to animals. First, it became widely understood that human activities and anthropogenic changes to the environment present a serious threat to biological diversity. In response to this many programmes to protect habitat and to conserve species have been launched. Second, advances in various fields of science led to a strengthening belief in many societies that a wide range of animals may have the capacity for consciousness and thus suffering. This has led to growing concern for the welfare of animals - the quality of their lives - and to the development of extensive bodies of welfare legislation in many countries. Concerns for species conservation and concerns for individual animal welfare do not always pull in the same direction. Around the world, conflicts are becoming commonplace between those who believe it can be justifiable to compromise the interests of individual animals in order to prevent species extinctions and those who do not. Such conflicts may be addressed and hopefully avoided or minimized through use of an ethical review process in which conservation benefits and welfare costs are carefully identified, considered and weighed in a cost/benefit analysis. A second function of this review process is to ensure that, where the decision is taken to proceed with a conservation programme that may adversely affect the welfare of some individuals, all necessary steps are taken to minimize these threats and their possible impacts.

Animals, values and tourism — structural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision

General concern for the environment within tourism practices does not guarantee that the rights and welfare of individual animals will be considered. Indeed, different philosophical positions: environmental ethics, animal welfare and animal rights would each have different implications if incorporated into tourism development. This paper reports on one case where the deliberate promotion of an animal rights perspective has brought about a structural transformation in tourism provision. In the UK, over the past ten years, there has been a complete shift away from viewing dolphins in captivity to viewing dolphins in the wild. This shift is illustrated with reference to the Morecambe Dolphin Campaign of 1989–1991, where animal rights activists brought about the closure of a dolphinarium through a combination of direct communication with tourists and through lobbying the licensing local authority. The different ethical issues associated with the UK's new wild dolphin watching infrastructure are illustrated with particular reference to the Moray Firth, Scotland. The importance of the tourism industry and tourism researchers recognising the significance of animals as individual actors is highlighted.