Zoo Animal Welfare Research Articles

Zoo Animal Welfare

The research aim was to assess animal welfare in a zoo. The objectives were to evaluateshelter areas and to identify potential behavioral disorders

Ratings of animal personality as a tool for improving the breeding, management and welfare of zoo mammals

AbstractThe effect of individual differences on the behaviour and reproduction of zoo animals has long been recognised by zoo biologists, yet only recently has the quantitative assessment of personality been used to investigate some of the challenges faced in zoo animal management. We review the findings of animal personality studies carried out in zoos since 1995. Our results reveal that zoo animal personality is most commonly assessed using observer ratings, where people who are familiar with the animals are asked to rate them on various personality traits. The reviewed studies indicate that zoo keepers are able to reliably rate animal personality traits, and these ratings are valid and related to behaviour. We identify promising areas of development in zoo animal personality research and suggest applications of personality profiling to zoo animal welfare and management. We argue that a validated personality questionnaire is a valuable tool for zoo professionals and advocate the implementation of personality assessment into existing zoo management practices to inform decisions on welfare and captive breeding.

The Assessment of Animal Welfare in British Zoos by Government-Appointed Inspectors.

Simple SummarySince 1984, British zoos have been required to meet the animal welfare standards set out under the Zoo Licensing Act 1981. Zoos are regularly assessed by government-appointed inspectors, who report on animal welfare standards in each zoo. This is the first analysis of those reports from a representative sample of British zoos. We highlight a number of concerns about the inspection process itself, and identify areas where changes would lead to improvements in both the inspection process and our ability to monitor animal welfare standards in zoos.We analysed the reports of government-appointed inspectors from 192 zoos between 2005–2008 to provide the first review of how animal welfare was assessed in British zoos since the enactment of the Zoo Licensing Act 1981. We examined the effects of whether or not a veterinarian was included in the inspection team, type of inspection, licence status of the zoo and membership of a zoo association on the inspectors’ assessments of animal welfare standards in five areas that approximate to the Five Freedoms. At least 11% of full licence inspections did not comply with the legal requirement for two inspectors. The inspectors’ reports were unclear as to how animal welfare was assessed, whether all animals or only a sub-sample had been inspected, and were based predominantly on welfare inputs rather than outcomes. Of 9,024 animal welfare assessments across the 192 zoos, 7,511 (83%) were graded as meeting the standards, 782 (9%) as substandard and the rest were not graded. Of the 192 zoos, 47 (24%) were assessed as meeting all the animal welfare standards. Membership of a zoo association was not associated with a higher overall assessment of animal welfare standards, and specialist collections such as Farm Parks and Other Bird collections performed least well. We recommend a number of changes to the inspection process that should lead to greater clarity in the assessment of animal welfare in British zoos.

Chronobiologische Untersuchungen zur Raum-Zeit-Nutzung bei einem Orang-Utan-Paar im Zoo Osnabrück

Research about influences of natural and artificial environmental influences to animal behaviour is essential for the improvement of animal welfare in zoos and can be of importance for the conservation of free living animal populations. In literature on Orang-Utans (Pongo spec.), the biggest and heaviest of arboreal mammals, a connection between solar altitude and circadian rhythm was found. Activity during the waking hours was additionally influenced by weather, food supply, intra- and interspecific influences. Sunset marked the end of daily activity and the animals showed their anticipation among other things in the daily construction of tree nests.An examination of artificial influences, Orang-Utans in everyday zoo life are exposed to, is starting point for the present study. Further intentions were to record the activity patterns of two adult Zoo-Orang-Utans from evening to morning and gather information about nest building and the dominance situation between the two animals. During six weeks the Orang-Utan couple Buschi and Astrid (1.1) in the Zoo of Osnabrück was observed in the indoor enclosures every day from evening to morning via a video surveillance system (hours of observation: 623.5h (Buschi, male); 236.5h (Astrid, female)).The activity profiles of Buschi and Astrid fit into the results of field studies concerning chronobiological organisation and activity pattern. In the afternoon both animals were quite active and fed, afterwards they constructed their nests and laid down on them. The present observation leads to the conclusion that both, sunlight as well as the artificial lights, are able to influence their behaviour as so-called zeitgebers. Every night Buschi's sleep was interrupted several times by short active phases, in which he scratched himself extensively and adjusted his nest. Until this observation no comparable data concerning comfort activity by night in field and zoo situations was available.Nest building behaviour similar to free living Orang-Utans has been shown by Buschi and Astrid as well, changes being dependant on available material and the lack of necessity for safety and stability. The behaviour of Buschi taking nest parts from Astrid, suggests dominance between the mates and the nest as a reason for competition.

The effect of environmental enrichment and visitors on the behaviour and welfare of two captive hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas)

AbstractThe welfare of zoo animals depends on a combination of physical, social, dietary and other ecological characteristics of the captive setting. We analysed the influence of the transfer of an adult couple of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) from a small and non-enriched cage that was closed to the public to a larger and enriched exhibit at the visitation area of the Sapucaia do Sul Zoological Park, RS, Brazil. A total of 350 h divided into four stages were spent observing the baboons: (i) in the non-enriched enclosure before the transfer; (ii) soon after the transfer to the enriched enclosure; (iii) six months; and (iv) 12 months after the transfer. The occurrence of stereotypic, social aggressive and social affiliative behaviours was recorded by ‘all occurrences’ sampling. The female showed a decrease in frequency of a stereotypic behaviour (spinning) and an increase in grooming in the enriched enclosure. The male showed a decrease in the frequency of certain stress-related or stereotypic behaviours after transfer, but other stress-related behaviours either increased or remained constant. The male behaviour of throwing faeces was affected by the presence of visitors. We suggest that the well-being of the female was more positively influenced by the new enclosure than that of the male, although gender differences may reflect the normal behavioural repertoire of this sexually dimorphic species.

Visitor reaction to pacing behavior: influence on the perception of animal care and interest in supporting zoological institutions

Many publications within the field of zoo animal welfare have stated the importance of decreasing stereotypic behavior (e.g., pacing) to help ensure a positive visitor experience. The idea behind these statements is that visitors want to see animals engaged in natural behavior. Additionally, it is thought that watching an animal exhibit species-appropriate behavior could help increase a visitor's connection to wildlife and ultimately their interest in conservation. However, until recently, no information was available to validate such statements. The purpose of this research was to examine people's reaction to viewing an animal engaged in pacing behavior. Participants were randomly selected to fill out a survey after watching a short video of either a tiger pacing or resting (control). Results indicate that having viewed a tiger pacing significantly decreases people's perception of the level of care animals receive at that facility. In addition, people's interest in supporting zoos decreased as a result of viewing this behavior. Results are discussed from an animal welfare, business, and conservation perspective.

Relationship between behavior, adrenal activity, and environment in zoo‐housed western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

Monitoring adrenal activity through noninvasive fecal hormone sampling is rapidly gaining popularity as a tool to assess zoo animal welfare. However, few studies have sought to investigate the interrelationships between behavior, adrenal activity, and environment, and ask whether both behavioral and adrenal monitoring strategies are required to assess welfare sufficiently. We present the findings of a 9-month study of a small group (one male, two females) of Western lowland gorillas, Gorilla gorilla gorilla. First, we examined the effect of environmental variables on gorilla behavior. Second, we examined the effect of environmental variables on the concentration of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGC) and the relationship between behavior and FGC. Environmental variables had similar effects on all three gorillas. Negative vigilance of visitors (NVV; staring, posturing, and charging at visitors) significantly increased in all subjects as environmental noise levels increased, and food-related behavior significantly decreased in all subjects as crowd size increased. Exhibit modifications had a number of positive effects on behavior. Notably, when privacy screens were used, NVV significantly decreased in two subjects. We found no significant effects of environmental variables on FGC. However, we did find significant relationships between behavior and FGC in one female. Specifically, her NVV was significantly higher one day before, and on the same day as, raised FGC. Also, hair plucking significantly increased in the two days following raised FGC. Overall, this study demonstrates how concurrent noninvasive fecal and behavioral monitoring can be used for gorilla welfare assessment.

The impact of moving to a novel environment on social networks, activity and wellbeing in two new world primates

Among the stressors that can affect animal welfare in zoos, the immediate effect of relocation to a novel environment is one that has received little attention in the literature. Here, we compare the social network, daily activity and the expression of stress-related behavior in capuchins (Cebus apella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) before and just after they were relocated to a new enriched enclosure. Results showed similar immediate responses to the move in the two species. Both showed a substantial increase in the time spent resting and spent more time in the highest and "safest" part of their enclosure after relocation. Both capuchins and squirrel monkeys spent significantly more time in close proximity to other group members after relocation, compared to before. In squirrel monkeys, the structure of the social network, which was initially correlated to affiliation, was no longer so after the move. In capuchins, the network analysis showed that individuals regrouped by age, with the youngsters who were potentially more affected by stress being in the center of the network. Social network analysis helped to achieve a more complete picture of how individuals were affected by relocation. We suggest that this type of analysis should be used alongside traditional methods of observation and analysis to encompass the most complex aspects of animal behavior in times of stress and to improve welfare.

Activity patterns, chronobiology and the assessment of stress and welfare in zoo and wild animals

The organization of life in time, and thus behavioural and physiological rhythms, are vital for all animals. Today, the aspect of ecological time niche is still often underestimated, ignored or rejected and, moreover, knowledge of the species-specific characteristics of natural temporal adaptations is often lacking. For most animals, neglecting time as an important dimension in analyses may lead to serious problems, especially in zoos or agriculture where animals are living under conditions completely dictated by humans or partially exposed to conditions that are often detached from their natural environments. The paper will give examples of studies on Przewalski horse Equus ferus przewalskii in semi-reserves, Red deer Cervus elaphus and Mouflon Ovis orientalis musimon in game enclosures, and on various zoo animals, which show that chronobiological investigations have a high indicative potential and provide an insight into ecological connections. New non-invasive measuring methods and powerful methods of data analysis provide the potential to include chronobiological studies as routine components of modern animal-husbandry methods, in management issues and in monitoring systems for zoo animal welfare.

Introduction to the special issue on zoo animal welfare

In May 2008, the Chicago Zoological Society's Center for the Science of Animal Welfare (CSAW) held a two-day international workshop designed to establish and foster new connections between zoo animal welfare scientists and welfare scientists in other fields, and to take the first step toward the development of a research agenda for zoo animal welfare science. Such a research agenda by its very nature would need to be highly multi-disciplinary and collaborative. In support of this purpose this article serves as an introduction for a collection of invited papers presented at the workshop. Workshop themes included the investigation of welfare metrics currently used and in development, elucidating gaps and determining needs for zoo welfare research, and gaining a deeper understanding of the value that understanding animals in the wild can bring to zoo animal welfare. Here we discuss some of the most relevant points made at the workshop and describe the seven most salient research needs that were suggested in consensus.

There are big gaps in our knowledge, and thus approach, to zoo animal welfare: a case for evidence‐based zoo animal management

There are gaps in knowledge that hinder our ability within zoos to provide good animal welfare. This does not mean that zoos cannot or do not provide good welfare, only that currently this goal is hindered. Three reasons for these gaps are identified as: (1) there is an emphasis on the identification and monitoring of indicators that represent poor welfare and it is assumed that an absence of poor welfare equates to good welfare. This assumption is overly simplistic and potentially erroneous; (2) our understanding of how housing and husbandry (H&H) affects animals is limited to a small set of variables determined mostly by our anthropogenic sensitivities. Thus, we place more value on captive environmental variables like space and companionship, ignoring other factors that may have a greater impact on welfare, like climate; (3) finally, whether intentional or not, our knowledge and efforts to improve zoo animal welfare are biased to very few taxa. Most attention has been focused on mammals, notably primates, large cats, bears, and elephants, to the exclusion of the other numerous species about which very little is known. Unfortunately, the extent to which these gaps limit our ability to provide zoo animals with good welfare is exacerbated by our over reliance on using myth and tradition to determine zoo animal management. I suggest that we can fill these gaps in our knowledge and improve our ability to provide zoo animals with good welfare through the adoption of an evidence-based zoo animal management framework. This approach uses evidence gathered from different sources as a basis for making any management decisions, as good quality evidence increases the likelihood that these decisions result in good zoo animal welfare.

GAPs in the study of zoo and wild animal welfare

To investigate the science of animal welfare for zoo and wild animals in the period from 1966 to 2007, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of abstracts downloaded from The Web of Science((c)) database using the keyword combination "Animal welfare, Zoo* and wild" in the topic field. In total we downloaded 1,125 abstracts, which were classified into the following categories: year of publication; environment of the study (e.g., zoo) or theoretical; area of knowledge (e.g., conservation in situ); number of experimental animals used; species; addresses of authors; taxonomic classification; publication language; journal name; number of citations received. Since 1990, there has been a rapid increase in the number of articles published in this area of animal welfare. One worrying result was that published articles were predominately of a theoretical nature (58.65%, N=563). Most of the articles were published by authors either in Europe (47.43%, N=480) or North America (37.65%, N=381) and written in English (87.71%, N=971). The majority of experimental studies were conducted with mammals (75.92%, N=391), and had small sample sizes (N=7 for zoo-based studies). In terms of impact factor (IF), the journals in this study had a median factor equivalent to that for the area of biological sciences (median IF=1.013). Little knowledge cross-over from farm animal welfare was found (only four articles) in this study. In conclusion, zoo and wild animal welfare as a science may benefit from a greater interaction with farm animal welfare.

Measuring zoo animal welfare: theory and practice

The assessment of animal welfare relates to investigations of how animals try to cope with their environment, and how easy or how difficult it is for them to do so. The use of rigorous scientific methods to assess this has grown over the past few decades, and so our understanding of the needs of animals has improved during this time. Much of the work in the field of animal welfare has been conducted on farm animals, but it is important to consider how the methods and approaches used in assessing farm animal welfare have been, and can be, adapted and applied to the measurement of welfare in animals in other domains, such as in zoos. This is beneficial to our understanding of both the theoretical knowledge, and the practicability of methods. In this article, some of the commonly-used methods for measuring animal welfare will be discussed, as well as some practical considerations in assessing the welfare of zoo animals.

Programmatic approaches to assessing and improving animal welfare in zoos and aquariums

There continues to be intense public, professional, and scientific focus on the welfare of animals in zoos and aquariums, but implementing welfare assessment tools consistently throughout this community remains challenging. Indirect measures can be used to assess "welfare potential"-the potential that animals will experience good welfare based on the care that they are provided with. Zoos and aquariums focus on welfare potential with their continued commitment to develop animal care guidelines (e.g. Animal Care Manuals) that can play a role within institutional accreditation or certification. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums Animal Welfare Committee has been pursuing approaches to maximize welfare potential by developing the concept of an integrated welfare approach or framework-an attempt to identify recommended animal care programs (e.g. enrichment, nutrition, veterinary care, research, and animal training programs) and their programmatic components. Objectively assessing the influence that animal care recommendations have on the welfare of individual animals is important to determine the efficacy of programmatic approaches. The future of welfare assessment within zoos and aquariums will include population-level evaluations-tracking emerging trends in health and behavior that come from both formal and informal institutional animal reports. Sharing this information, and performing meta-analyses of the data using epidemiological approaches, will become easier with advances in technology and database management software. Identifying welfare "red/green flags" throughout captive populations will provide direction for more focused assessments that will ultimately inform the design of more effective animal care programs.

Genetic polymorphism as a background of animal behavior

Various studies have shown the associations between differences in human behavioral traits and genetic polymorphism of neurotransmitter-related proteins such as receptors, transporters and monoamine oxidase. To clarify the genetic background of animal behavior, corresponding regions in animals have been analyzed. The study has been especially focused on primates, as the evolutionally closest animal to humans, and on dogs, as the socially closest animal to humans. In primates, polymorphisms were discovered between or within species, and the functional effects on neural transmission were found to be different by alleles. Even in apes, the closest species to humans, function was different from that in humans. In dogs, allele distributions of several genes were different among breeds showing different behavioral traits, and genes associated with individual differences in aggressiveness and aptitude of working dogs were surveyed. The survey of behavior-related genes has also been carried out in other mammals such as horses and cetaceans. Genes controlling various behaviors in birds have also been reported. The marker genes for behavior will provide useful information for human evolution, welfare of zoo animals and effective selection of working dogs and industry animals.

Visitor-associated variation in captive Diana monkey ( Cercopithecus diana diana) behaviour

This research examines the relationship between visitor numbers and the behaviour of Diana monkeys ( Cercopithecus diana diana). A family group of two adult and four juvenile captive Diana monkeys was studied intensively for 10 days at Edinburgh Zoo, UK. The six subjects were scan sampled every 5 min for 7 h per day; their behaviour, and visitor numbers, were recorded. Chi-squared analysis revealed a highly significant association between Diana monkey behaviour and visitor group size, where the amount of time spent grooming and sleeping/resting decreased with greater visitor numbers whereas time spent playing and feeding/chewing increased. Results are discussed in the context of recent findings regarding visitor presence and zoo animal welfare.

Zoo Animal Welfare

The continuing existence of zoos and their good purposes such as conservation, science, education, and recreation, can be ethically justified only if zoos guarantee the welfare of their animals. The usual criteria for measuring animal welfare in zoos are physical health, long life, and reproduction. This paper looks at these criteria and finds them insufficient. Additional criteria are submitted to expand the range of welfare considerations: natural and abnormal behavior; freedom and choice; and dignity. All these criteria should play a role in analyzing zoo animal welfare and interests but dignity has the overriding part because it impacts on both animal and human interests.

Environmental enrichment: past, present and future

Intereat and activity in the field of environmental enrichment have blossomed over the last decade, and the sophistication and utility of the concepts underlying enrichment have grown correspondingly. Combined with the enthusiasm of animal keepers, this has resulted in demonstrable improvements to the welfare of zoo animals. The next step is for enrichment to be incorporated systematically into the husbandry programmes of all zoos and aquariums, and this is beginning to happen. Detailed systematic studies utilizing large sample sizes are needed to test and refine hypotheses in order to ensure that enrichment activities continue to be effective in the future.

Animal Welfare and Ethics Evaluations in South East Asian Zoos: Procedures and Prospects

AbstractThe rise in public interest in animal rights and welfare during the last two decades has been dramatic, and concern for zoo animals is evident throughout society in many South East Asian countries. It is essential that problems related to animal welfare are understood in order for zoos to make significant improvements in their professional and ethical standards. In this paper, I describe in detail the procedures of welfare and ethics evaluations in South East Asian zoos. Zoo evaluation is an ongoing process and is carried out on behalf of the South East Asian Zoos Association to evaluate the members of this organisation. During recent evaluations, several major and minor problems have been identified and constructive suggestions have been provided to zoo authorities which have in turn significantly improved the standards of animal welfare and ethics. Thus, the welfare evaluation procedures outlined in this paper could serve as a model for other zoos to follow — locally, regionally and globally.

Effect of Enclosure Quality on Reactivity and Welfare of Captive Soemmerring's Gazelle (Gazella soemmerringii)

The welfare of nonhuman animals in zoos is a great challenge to the zookeeper. Changes in the behavioral response of captive animals to their immediate environment can be used as a method for evaluating their welfare status. This study evaluates reactive responses of 3 groups of captive Soemmerring's gazelle (Gazella soemmerringii) kept in enclosures of different quality at Giza Zoo, Egypt. The study ascribes variations in observed behaviors to the differences in the living standards of the 3 groups. The group most concealed from visitors' disturbance (Group 3) was the least reactive. With the morning onset of human-nonhuman animal interaction, reactivity reached significantly higher levels. The study noted no difference in reactivity between male and female animals. The main sign of the animals' alertness was their attention to sources of disturbances; vocalization was minimal. Animals in Groups 1 and 2, those most accessible to visitors, had higher agonistic reactions than animals in Group 3.